Pit Lake Water Quality of Central India

Several pit lakes exist in the Raipur area due to lime stone mining. The water of pit lakes is used for bathing, washing and irrigation purposes. They are found to be contaminated with toxicants i . e . fluoride, surfactants and microbes far above the recommended limits. In this work, the water quality of 29 pit lakes locates in two districts: Raipur and Baloda Bazar, Chhattisgarh, India are assessed for drinking and irrigation purposes.

• Pit Lake
• Water Quality
• Fluoride
• Surfactant
• Microbe

1. Introduction

Several pit lakes were occurred in various parts of world due to mining activities. They are found to be contaminated due to anthropogenic activities i.e. bathing, washing, mixing of waste and runoff water which impart the water to be unsuitable for drinking and aqua-culture [1] -[14] . A largest lime stone rock is deposited in the Raipur-Baloda Bazar area, Chhattisgarh, India. Several cement plants are running in this area by consuming the raw materials with creation of > 100 pit lakes in the Chhattisgarh state over a large area, ≈1.10⁴ km². Their waters are used for drinking, bathing, laundry and irrigation purposes. Hence, in this work, the water quality of 29 pit lakes of Raipur-Baloda Bazar areas, Chhattisgarh is assessed for rating of the drinking purposes.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Study Area

Many cement plants i.e. Ambuja Cements Ltd, Century Cement, Emami Cement Ltd, Grasim Cement, Lafarge India Ltd, Ultra Tech Cement Works, etc. are in operation nearby Raipur city due to availability of raw materials. Thereby, several pit lakes in villages namely i.e. Rawan, Pausari, Bharseli, Kukurdih, Suhela, Chandi, Karmandih, Maldi, Mopar, Amlidih, Turmha, Matia, Gaitara, etc. of Raipur and Baloda Bazar districts, Chhattisgarh are produced. Their waters are used for various house hold and other purposes.

2.2. Sample Collection

The sampling net-work is shown in Figure 1. The composite water samples were collected during the period, January 2013 as prescribed in the literature [15] . The water sample was collected from 5 locations (200 × 5 mL) of a pond in a cleaned polyethylene bottle. The parameters i.e. pH, temperature (T), electrical conductivity (EC), dissolved oxygen (DO) and reduction potential (RP) of the water were measured at the spot. The samples were dispatched to the laboratory and refrigerated at −4˚C.

Figure 1

Sampling location of pit lakes in Raipur and Baloda Bazar areas, Chhattisgarh, India

2.3. Analytical Methods

The total dissolved solid (TDS) of the water was measured by the evaporation method [15] . The total hardness (TH) and total alkalinity (TA) values of the water were determined by the titration methods [16] . The detergent was analyzed in the term of widely used surfactant i.e. sodium lauryl sulfate by the flow injection method [17] . The fluoride content of the water was analyzed by the Metrohlm-781 ion selective meter using the buffer in 1:1 volume ratio. The content of ions i.e. Cl⁻, , , NH₄⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺ and Ca²⁺ in the water was quantified by the Dionex-1100 ion meter. The metal content of the water was monitored by the GBC flame AAS-932AA.

The indicative microbes i.e. total coliforms (TC), fecal coliforms (FC), Pseudomonas aeruginosa, yeast and fungi were tested by the plate method [18] . The bactaslyde (pre-sterilized slide) was coated with specially developed media of lactose and indicator. The slide no. BS-101, BS-102 and BS-103 were used for detection of E. coli + TC, Pseudomonas + TC and yeast-fungi + TC, respectively. The slide was plunged into the test water vertically for ≈ 20 sec. The slide was incubated for 24 hr at 37˚C. The colonies developed in the slide were compared with the standard chart. The Salmonella bacteria in the water were tested by the pouch pack method [18] . The content (10 g) of pouches (i.e. containing organics and sulfite material) were added into a 150-mL sterilized bottle filled with 100 mL of contaminated water, and incubated for 24 hr at 37˚C. The presence of Salmonella species was confirmed by changing of color from light blue to dark black due to reduction of the sulfite into sulfide. The water quality indices i.e. sodium hazard (SH), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and magnesium hazard (MH) were computed by using the following equations.

The equivalent concentration of cations was used.

3. Result and Discussion

3.1. Geographical Characteristics of Lakes

The pit lakes are occurred in the four blocks i.e. Baloda Bazar (BB), Bhatapara (BP), Kharora (KR) and Palari (PA) of districts: Raipur and Baloda Bazar, Figure 1. The geographical characteristics of 29 pit lakes are summarized in Table 1. Their age, depth and area were ranged from 14 - 32 Yr, 3.0 - 21 m and 1.3 - 13 × 10⁴ m² with mean value of 21 ± 2 Yr, 7.5 ± 1.7 m and (2.8 ± 1.0) × 10⁴ m², respectively. The age and depth of pit lakes located in the four blocks are found to be comparable. However, the area of the pit lakes in the BB block was found at least 2-flods higher than other blocks due to deposition of the lime stone over wide area.

3.2. Physical Characteristics of Water

The physical characteristics of lake waters are shown in Table 2. Generally, water is colorless except 9 lakes which are covered by green algal bloom due to over loadings of the nutrients. Measured temperature of pit lake waters was ranged from 23˚C - 27˚C with mean value of 24˚C ± 0.6˚C. The DO and RP value of the water of the lakes was ranged from 4.8 - 6.8 mg/L and 200 - 261 mV with mean value of 6.0 ± 0.3 mg/L and 231 ± 7 mV, respectively. The pH value of lake waters (n = 29) of studied area was observed in the range of 6.1 - 7.8 with mean value of 6.6 ± 0.2. Among them, the pH value of 20 lakes was found below 7.0, due to presence of at excessive levels. The EC and TDS value of the pit lake water was seen in the range of 462 - 1396 µS/cm and 727 - 2177 mg/L with mean value of 702 ± 89 µS/cm and 932 ± 114 mg/L, respectively. The value of TH and TA was marked in the range of 119 - 455 and 85 - 546 mg/L with mean value of 192 ± 32 and 230 ± 38 mg/L, respectively. The water of all pit lakes was found to be hard as the TH value was found above 100 mg as CaCO₃ mg/L. The TH and TA values were correlated well (r = 0.82) due to buffering with, Figure 2.

Table 1

Geographical characteristics of lake

S. No.	Block	Location	Water Type	Age, Yr	Depth, m	Area, (×104) m2
1	Baloda Bazar	Rwan1	CL	32	13.5	8.7
2		Rwan2	CL	32	18	13
3		Mudhipar	CL	20	4.5	2.1
4		Rawan	CL	32	15	11
5		Semaradih	A	18	3.0	1.8
6		Dhabadih1	A	20	4.5	1.6
7		Dhabadih2	A	20	4.5	2.2
8		Sonadih	CL	32	13.5	2.1
9		Murra1	CL	17	4.5	2.3
10	Bhatapara	Turma	A	14	3.0	1.3
11		Matiya	A	17	6.0	2.1
12		Pharhed	CL	18	3.0	1.7
13		Ranijaroud	CL	18	3.0	2.1
14		Jaroud	A	17	6.0	2.1
15		Bhalukona	CL	17	6.0	1.7
16		Suhela	CL	17	4.5	2.1
17		Lohari1	A	17	7.5	1.3
18		Lohari2	CL	17	9.0	1.7
19		Bitkuli1	CL	20	6.0	2.1
20		Bitkuli2	CL	20	6.0	1.3
21		Hirmi	CL	32	13.5	1.4
22		Chandi	A	18	4.5	1.7
23	Kharora	Murra2	CL	17	6.0	2.3
24		Amlidih	CL	21	6.0	1.8
25		Murra3	CL	17	9.0	1.9
26		Dhansuli1	CL	20	6.0	2.2
27		Dhansuli2	CL	18	6.0	2.5
28		Dhansuli3	CL	18	21	2.4
29	Palari	Amakoni	A	18	6.0	1.9

A = Algal, CL = Colorless.

3.3. Chemical Characteristics of Water

The chemical characteristics of 29 pit lakes are summarized in Table 3. Sodium concentration of in the water of 29 lakes was ranged from 14 - 34 mg/L with mean value of 22 ± 2 mg/L. Fluoride and chloride levels in the pit lakes was observed in the range of 1.6 - 3.8 and 10 - 29 mg/L with mean value of 2.3 ± 0.2 and 17 ± 2 mg/L, respectively. Potassium concentration of the studied lakes was seen in the range of 1.4 - 8.4 mg/L with mean value of 3.2 ± 0.6 mg/L. Magnesium and Ca concentrations were observed in the range of 10 - 31 and 28 - 95 mg/L with mean value of 18 ± 2 and 52 ± 6 mg/L, respectively. The sulfate concentration was ranged from 15 - 80 mg/L with mean value 38 ± 5 mg/L. Nitrate level was detected in the range from 10 - 192 mg/L with mean value of 40 ± 16 mg/L. The Fe and Mn concentration was seen in the range of 0.37 - 0.84 and 0.15 - 0.42 mg/L with mean value of 0.50 ± 0.05 and 0.24 ± 0.03 mg/L, respectively. The value of DO, Fe and Mn was found to be relatively higher in the Baloda Bazar and Batapara blocks. However, the value of other parameters observed was found to be comparable, Figure 3.

Table 2

Physical characteristics of lake water

S. No.	T,˚C	pH	EC, µS/cm	TDS, mg/L	DO, mg/L	RP, mV	TH, mg/L	TA, mg/L
1	23	6.3	738	833	6.1	227	182	223
2	24	6.1	773	850	6.5	205	175	214
3	23	6.4	1032	1130	6.6	214	238	248
4	23	6.4	844	1026	6.4	238	189	256
5	23	6.1	532	809	6.0	224	140	393
6	23	6.4	745	911	6.6	235	203	273
7	23	7.3	623	813	6.5	255	168	234
8	23	6.5	815	2177	5.9	230	196	265
9	23	6.2	738	1823	6.3	227	182	256
10	24	6.2	529	902	6.4	250	119	154
11	23	7.8	1331	855	6.0	261	420	521
12	23	7.6	1396	750	6.4	256	455	546
13	23	6.4	515	797	6.0	242	210	179
14	26	6.2	622	780	5.5	212	140	179
15	23	6.2	497	760	6.3	223	154	171
16	23	6.2	812	727	6.0	200	189	256
17	23	6.1	531	770	6.6	214	161	162
18	23	7.4	1088	816	6.7	205	406	316
19	23	6.2	582	1077	6.0	235	147	162
20	27	6.3	622	972	6.8	214	175	204
21	23	6.2	490	816	6.8	238	126	101
22	23	6.2	484	878	6.6	251	119	162
23	27	7.3	571	798	4.9	261	147	129
24	27	7.4	462	801	4.8	247	133	85
25	27	7.4	487	777	5.0	224	119	154
26	27	7.6	672	791	5.2	214	196	204
27	27	6.2	661	920	5.0	227	126	223
28	27	7.3	703	820	5.3	211	189	188
29	23	6.3	475	860	5.0	257	175	204

All pit lakes were found contaminated with surfactants i.e. sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) in the range of 3.3 - 8.0 mg/L with mean value of 5.4 ± 0.4 mg/L. The mean SLS content was found to increase > 26% (6.8 mg/L) in the summer (i.e. May-June) due to increase of the water temperature (≈10˚C) and reduction of water levels (> 50%).

3.4. Microbe Contamination

Microbes cause many types of diseases i.e. diarrheal diseases, including Cholera, and other serious illnesses such as Guinea worm disease, Typhoid, and Dysentery. In this work the indicative microbe i.e. facial coliforms, facial streptococci, Salmonella, algae and fungi were determined, and the results shown in Table 4. The chromatograms of indicative bacteria (i.e. total coliform, E. coli and Pseudomonas), yeast and fungi are shown in Figure 4. Their concentrations were ranged from 10² - 10⁷ count/mL. The positive test for Salmonella bacteria was marked for all water reservoirs as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 2

Spatial variation of physical parameters of water in ponds of Baloda Bazar (BB), Bhatapara (BP), Kharora (KR) and Palari (PA) blocks

3.5. Water Quality Assessment

As per Piper diagram (Figure 5), the Na + Mg + Ca + HCO₃ type water was commonly available in the pit lakes of the studied areas. The pit lake water was contaminated with F⁻, Fe, Mn and SLS beyond the permissible limit of 1.5, 0.30, 0.05 and 1 mg/L, respectively [19] [20] . In addition, the EC, TDS and TA values of the water were found above the recommended limits of 300 µS/cm, 500 mg/L and 120 mg/L, respectively. All pit lakes were found to be contaminated with microbes i.e. facial coliforms, facial streptococci, Salmonella, algae and fungi beyond permissible limits [19] [20] . The pit lake water is not found suitable for drinking purposes.

The SAR, SH and MH values of the water of the studied area were ranged from 0.5 - 1.9, 11% - 39% and 16% - 80% with mean value of 1.0 ± 0.1, 22% ± 3% and 41% ± 6%, respectively, Table 4. Generally, the SAR, SH and MH value of < 1, <20, and < 40 were considered good for the irrigation purposes [21] [22] . The water quality of the pit lakes was assessed by using the salinity and Wilcox diagrams as shown in Figure 6, Figure 7. They could be used for irrigation purposes.

3.6. Sources of Contaminants

The correlation matrix of the variables is summarized in Table 5. Among them, F⁻, Mg²⁺ and Ca²⁺ were found to be correlated well, showing origin from the similar sources i.e. leaching from the lime stone. The Na⁺ content was correlated well with the SLS contents, indicating origin from the use of sodium lauryl sulfate as detergent.

Table 3

Chemical characteristics of Lake water, mg/L

S. No.	Na+	K+	Mg2+	Ca2+	F−	Cl−			Fe	Mn	SLS
1	22	2.9	27	73	3.1	20	17	39	0.37	0.18	5.2
2	14	3.2	24	70	2.5	29	15	38	0.41	0.16	3.3
3	17	4.3	19	64	2.7	25	49	80	0.39	0.19	4.0
4	21	3.2	21	64	2.2	15	50	53	0.38	0.29	4.9
5	34	2.8	13	36	1.9	10	29	27	0.42	0.35	8.0
6	28	2.2	29	70	2.9	29	18	43	0.41	0.16	6.6
7	28	2.0	17	48	2.1	10	31	18	0.56	0.21	6.6
8	29	2.1	11	36	2.2	15	34	42	0.84	0.17	6.8
9	21	1.8	17	53	2.2	25	35	62	0.71	0.18	4.9
10	29	4.3	15	45	2.2	10	18	32	0.37	0.27	6.8
11	25	2.1	24	73	3.2	10	42	22	0.39	0.24	5.9
12	24	2.2	14	42	1.8	15	22	28	0.39	0.24	5.6
13	22	2.4	31	95	3.8	15	190	36	0.37	0.24	5.2
14	20	3.4	18	48	1.5	10	192	29	0.38	0.27	4.7
15	25	2.1	19	64	2.5	20	11	52	0.42	0.42	5.9
16	22	2.8	17	45	2.4	10	45	46	0.42	0.27	5.2
17	21	3.1	12	34	1.7	10	10	32	0.39	0.24	4.9
18	24	7.6	13	34	1.8	10	18	39	0.38	0.39	5.6
19	22	1.7	18	50	2.4	15	20	48	0.56	0.29	5.2
20	24	2.9	15	42	1.8	15	11	15	0.42	0.32	5.6
21	21	3.8	21	62	2.2	15	13	17	0.56	0.29	4.9
22	17	1.8	20	64	2.7	15	31	20	0.56	0.27	4.0
23	20	4.2	12	39	1.8	25	39	38	0.42	0.19	4.7
24	24	7.0	13	42	2.2	20	31	41	0.56	0.17	5.6
25	14	2.1	10	31	1.6	20	31	34	0.70	0.15	3.3
26	25	1.4	21	67	2.5	10	38	42	0.84	0.16	5.9
27	25	8.4	10	28	1.6	29	35	48	0.56	0.19	5.9
28	17	2.9	17	48	2.9	15	42	46	0.72	0.17	4.0
29	32	2.1	11	28	1.6	15	31	42	0.56	0.18	7.5

The origin of bacteria i.e. E. coli, Pseudomonas and Salmonella in the water was expected due to use of human, animals and birds for bathing and mixing of runoff and sewage water. Similarly, the origin of the algae and fungi was assumed from the nutrient overloading in the water from the mixing of agricultural and runoff waste. The ions i.e. Cl⁻, and were expected to originate from the multiple sources i.e. mixing of runoff, agricultural and sewage wastes.

4. Conclusion

The major contaminants of the pit lake waters were F⁻, surfactant and microbe which imparted the water to be unsuitable for drinking purposes. However, the surfactant and microbe contaminations could be controlled by imposing restriction on bathing and laundry uses of the lake water. The physical properties i.e. acidity, conductivity, hardness, alkalinity and salinity of the water were found below the permissible limits and could be used for the irrigation purposes.

Figure 3

Spatial variation of chemical parameters of waterponds of Baloda Bazar (BB), Bhatapara (BP), Kharora (KR) and Palari (PR) blocks

Table 4

WQI indices and microbe content of water, count/mL

S. No.	WQI	SAR	SH	MH	E. coli + TC	PM+TC	Yeast + Fungi + TC	Salmonella
1	71	0.8	15	40	104	102	106	Positive
2	78	0.5	11	42	103	102	106	Positive
3	109	0.7	15	32	104	102	105	Positive
4	85	0.8	17	63	103	102	106	Positive
5	48	1.9	34	18	105	103	106	Positive
6	73	1.0	18	64	104	102	106	Positive
7	54	1.2	25	51	107	105	106	Positive
8	79	1.6	33	23	105	106	106	Positive
9	73	0.9	19	39	104	102	106	Positive
10	45	1.4	28	22	105	103	105	Positive
11	150	0.9	17	63	104	102	106	Positive
12	158	1.2	25	16	104	102	106	Positive
13	41	0.7	12	65	105	103	107	Positive
14	54	0.9	20	31	104	102	105	Positive
15	41	1.0	19	44	105	103	105	Positive
16	81	1.0	22	51	105	103	106	Positive
17	47	1.1	27	36	107	104	105	Positive
18	115	1.3	31	27	104	102	106	Positive
19	51	1.0	20	44	104	102	106	Positive
20	58	1.2	25	26	105	103	106	Positive
21	41	0.8	17	36	104	102	106	Positive
22	41	0.7	14	56	107	105	106	Positive
23	40	1.0	25	31	105	106	106	Positive
24	27	1.2	28	45	104	102	103	Positive
25	31	0.8	21	16	104	102	106	Positive
26	58	1.0	18	80	105	103	106	Positive
27	58	1.6	37	22	104	102	107	Positive
28	59	0.7	18	59	107	105	106	Positive
29	33	1.7	39	46	104	103	107	Positive

WQI = Water quality index, SAR = Sodium adsorption ratio, SH = Sodium hazard, MH = Magnesium hazard, TC = Total coliform, PM = Pseudomonas.

Figure 4

Microbes {E. coli, total coliform (TC), Pseudomonas (PM) and Salmonella} test for the studied water: A = E. coli + TC (10 7 count/mL), B = PM + TC (10 7 count/mL), C = Y + F (10 6 count/mL), D = Salmonella (positive).

(b)(c)Figure 5

Piper diagram for water of pit lakes

Figure 6

Salinity diagram for water of pit lakes

Figure 7

Wilcox diagram for water of pit lakes

Table 5

Correlation matrix of elements

	Na+	K+	Mg2+	Ca2+	F−	Cl−			Fe	Mn	SLS
Na+	1.00
K+	−0.01	1.00
Mg2+	−0.18	−0.34	1.00
Ca2+	−0.25	−0.35	0.96	1.00
F−	−0.09	−0.32	0.86	0.89	1.00
Cl−	−0.32	0.22	0.13	0.13	0.06	1.00
	−0.14	−0.05	0.31	0.20	0.20	−0.17	1.00
	−0.18	0.14	0.02	0.08	0.09	0.48	0.01	1.00
Fe	−0.01	−0.22	−0.30	−0.23	−0.23	0.02	−0.16	0.11	1.00
Mn	0.22	0.09	−0.05	−0.03	0.00	−0.45	−0.02	−0.21	−0.46	1.00
SLS	1.00	−0.01	−0.17	−0.24	−0.08	−0.32	−0.14	−0.18	−0.01	0.22	1.00

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the UGC, New Delhi for granting RGJ scholarship to the SR.

References

1. Miller, G.C., Lyons, W.B. and Davis, A. (1996) Understanding the Water Quality of Pit Lakes. Environmental Science Technology, 30, 118A-123A. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es9621354

2. Castro, J.M. and Moore, J.N. (2000) Pit Lakes: Their Characteristics and the Potential for Their Remediation. Environmental Geology, 39, 1254-1260. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002549900100

3. Gupta, S., Nayak, S. and Saha, R.N. (2012) Major Ion Chemistry and Metal Distribution in Coal Mine Pit Lake Contaminated with Industrial Effluents: Constraints of Weathering and Anthropogenic Inputs. Environmental Earth Science, 67, 2053-2061.

4. Chandra, S., Singh, A. and Tomar, P.K. (2012) Assessment of Water Quality Values in Porur Lake Chennai, Hussain Sagar Hyderabad and Vihar Lake Mumbai, India. Chemical Science Transaction, 1, 508-515. http://dx.doi.org/10.7598/cst2012.169

5. Gwiazda, E.S. and Zurek, R. (2006) Distribution of Trace Elements in Meromictic Pit Lake, Springer. Water Air and Soil Pollution, 174, 181-196. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11270-006-9091-4

6. Spry, D.J. and Wiener, J.G. (1991) Metal Bioavailability and Toxicity to Fish in Low-Alkalinity Lakes: A Critical Review. Environmental Pollution, 71, 243-304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(91)90034-T

7. Motyka, J. and Czop, M. (2004) Water Quality Changes in the Abandoned Zakrzówek Limestone Quarry near Cracow, Poland. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 13, 187-191.

8. Motyka, J. and Czop, M. (2008) Vertical Changes of Iron and Maganese, Concentration in Water from Abandoned Zakrzówek Limestone Quarry near Cracow (South Poland). 10th International Mine Water Association Congress, Karlsbad, Czech Republic, 197-200. http://toc.proceedings.com/14225webtoc.pdf

9. Tandel, B.N., Macwan, J.E.M. and Soni, C.K. Assessment of Water Quality Index of Small Lake in South Gujarat Region, India. http://psrcentre.org/images/extraimages/63.%2010.pdf

10. Marques, E.D., Sella, S.M., Mello, W.Z., Lacerda, L.D. and Silva-Filho, E.V. (2008) Hydrogeochemistry of Sand Pit Lakes at Sepetiba Basin, Rio de Janeiro, Southeastern Brazil. Water Air and Soil Pollution, 189, 21-36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11270-007-9550-6

11. Moncur, M.C., Ptacek, C.J., Blowes, D.W. and Jambor, J.L. (2006) Spatial Variations in Water Composition at a Northern Canadian Lake Impacted by Mine Drainage. Applied Geochemistry, 21, 1799-1817. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2006.06.016

12. Pellicori, D.A., Gammons, C.H., Simon, R. and Poulson, S.R. (2005) Geochemistry and Stable Isotope Composition of the Berkeley Pit Lake and Surrounding Mine Waters, Butte, Montana. Applied Geochemistry, 20, 2116-2137. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2005.07.010

13. Denimal, S., Bertrand, C., Mudry, J., Paquette, Y., Hochart, M. and Steinmann, M. (2005) Evolution of the Aqueous Geochemistry of Mine Pit Lakes-Blanzy-Montceau-les-Mines Coal Basin (Massif Central, France): Origin of Sulfate Contents; Effects of Stratification on Water Quality. Applied Geochemistry, 20, 825-839. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2004.11.015

14. Castendyk, D.N., Mauk, J.L. and Webster, J.G. (2005) A Mineral Quantification Method for Wall Rocks at Open Pit Mines, and Application to the Martha Au-Ag Mine, Waihi, New Zealand. Applied Geochemistry, 20, 135-156. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2004.07.001

15. APHA (2005) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 21st Edition, APHA, AWWA and WEF, Washington DC. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/156744115/editions?editionsView=true&referer=di

16. Nollet Leo, M.L. and De Gelder Leen, S.P. (2007) Handbook of Water Analysis. 2nd Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 784 p. https://www.crcpress.com/Handbook-of-Water-Analysis-Second-Edition/Nollet-De-Gelder/9780849370335

17. Patel, R. and Patel, K.S. (1998) Flow Injection Determination of Anionic Surfactants with Cationic Dyes in Water Bodies of Central India. Analyst, 123, 1691-1695. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/a802945h

18. Rakiro Bootech System Pvt. Ltd, Bactaslyde Microbe Detection Device. http://rakiro.net/bactaslyde.html

19. BIS (2003) Indian Standard Drinking Water Specifications (IS 10500:1991), Ed. 2.2 (2003-2009). Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi.

20. WHO (2011) Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. 4th Edition, World Health Organization, Geneva. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/44584/1/9789241548151_eng.pdf

21. Richards, L.A. (1954) Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soils. United States Salinity Laboratory Staff. Agriculture Handbook No. 60, USDA and IBH Pub. Coy Ltd., New Delhi, 98-99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00010694-195408000-00012

22. Wilcox, L.V. (1955) Classification and Use of Irrigation Waters. USDA, Circular 969, Washington DC.