Speaking in Silence. Wall Writing and the Urban Memory in Cairo

Writing on walls is a worldwide phenomenon. In Cairo, one can find statements such as “no parking”, “A loves R”, “M was Hier” and “For an Immortal Memory”. This article aims to investigate the meaning of wall writing in three different areas in Cairo. The three areas were chosen to explore the impact of historic, sociocultural and economic diversity. The study questions whether street writing contributes to placemaking and storytelling. If one considers that art is an aesthetic, imaginative method of communication, then certain forms of wall writing and colouring fall under it. Writing on a wall in Cairo implies a claim of relevance, importance, and reality. It is a public tool for self-identification, expression, and bridging the financial gap created by wealthy corporations. It depicts stories of silenced groups, their hopes, emotions and cultural diversity.

• Linguistic Landscape
• Street Art
• Wall Writing
• Murals
• Placemaking
• Urban Memory

1. Introduction

We constantly hear about the liveable city; what does it mean? In Australia, for example, liveable cities have been conceptualised in countless indices, including safety, attractiveness, social cohesion and inclusion, public open space, cultural opportunities, and walking infrastructure [1]. Nonetheless, there are some considerations to note. Some liveability indices are designed to assess the attractiveness of cities for investors or expatriates [2]. Another consideration is whether cities are delivering liveability for all ([3]: p. 2). However, these considerations must be grounded in local sociocultural, economic and political contexts. This can be done through multidisciplinary methods including observing the citizens’ behaviour and listening to urban language. Cities require more listening; from city to place; and from past to present. The stories of the city deserve to be heard. They should be unveiled and collected. Those stories are found in street patterns, architecture, the urban and linguistic landscapes, and street art. By “street art,” the author generally refers to elements such as murals, which serve beautification, communication, and commemoration. Street art does not create spaces; it reflects groups, authorities, or individual self-expression and visualisation [4]. Despite that, murals in volatile cities like Belfast serve as tools for both the physical and symbolic partitioning of space ([5]: p. 2). Accordingly, the ability to recode visual information means that memory representations can shift from spatially dependent formats to place-dependent ones, becoming less reliant on precise spatial information [6].

Walls host a wide spectrum of written communication. The strength of this communication lies not in its public presence but in what the messages reveal about the writers’ intended motivations. Small reminders and memories of the past linger in footsteps, walking patterns, bodily movements, and memories shared along a streetscape that may no longer hold those physical reminders ([7]: p. 216). Graffiti and texts are defined as writing or drawings on publicly accessible surfaces or murals ([8]: p. 49). Mural art in Cairo is spread across the city, and in many cases, it is challenging to classify an artwork as graffiti or writing. Wall writing might be seen as a form of graffiti, a calligraphic graffiti. What is most certain is that wall writing requires language skills; the observer must be literate and must master the language [4]. Although mural art can be official, our attention is drawn to wall writings created by ordinary people.

Whoever has something to say in Cairo can write it on a wall: “private garage”, “no parking”; see Figure 1Figure 1. Even the authorities use the wall for saying something; see Figure 2Figure 2. Wall writing is a production that appeals to the visibility and readability of the text both from the procedures of its manufacture and from the places where the text is exposed.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Writing on a garage door; “no parking,” “a private garage”, Matareia, 2024. The author.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Official writing on the Obelisk pedestal at Tahrir Square, Cairo, 2026. The author.

Writing on walls is as old as writing itself, which has a long history. The use of walls in public spaces as a form of urban notice board is a long-standing tradition in South Asia ([5]: p. 1). Writing on the landscape, and “signing the land,” is not an unusual phenomenon. In China, such “cliff-carvings” are a well-documented genre of formal texts. In the Himalayan foothills of China’s Yunnan province, on the eastern slopes of the Jade Dragon Snow Mountain, a Chinese inscription is carved into the limestone cliff face. This is the municipality of Lijiang’s most prominent cliff inscription. The main part of the inscription, engraved in large characters, reads “Jade Pillar that upholds the sky.” In smaller characters, the inscription also bears the name of Lijiang’s first magistrate, Yang Bi. The inscription can be read as a metaphor for the mountain, a pillar of jade that reaches into the firmament, but it could equally be read as a metaphor for a statesman who upholds the weight of the nation ([9]: pp. 1-2).

In southern Egypt, near the city of Aswan, stands a granite boulder by a bank of the Nile. The Hieroglyphic inscription carved on the boulder warns travellers (or enemies) that they are entering Egyptian territory, which is protected by the gods and their representative on Earth, the Pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians used to engrave texts recounting their heroic stories and chronicles on their temples for posterity. Their texts depended on symbols organised in vertical composition. The beauty of the overall composition was not primarily related to the art form of the symbols, but rather to the ensemble and painted or engraved figures; see Figure 3Figure 3.

Murals are not a historic phenomenon; in Northern Ireland, they feature a wide range of subjects, styles, and locations. It is not rare to find murals ([10]: p. 42). A “necessary condition for its use to be effective is that exposed writing needs to be sufficiently large, and to present the message it carries in an evident and clear (verbal and/or visual) way” ([11]: p. 58). Furthermore, one can find wall writings in various cities around the world. Figure 4Figure 4 depicts sprayed text on a shop shutter in Istanbul, Türkiye. It is strategically located in a historic shopping area in the heart of old Istanbul; however, it is visible only when the shop is closed.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Hieroglyphic text on a temple façade, Aswan, Egypt, 2017. The author.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Wall writing on a shop shutter, old Istanbul, Türkiye, 2026. The author.

Writing in Cairo faces two challenges. First, the observer must know the language; second, it must attract attention. Unless the writers use more comprehensive words, the wall writing takes longer to read. Lovers, for example, adopt the heart sign to express love. It is clear, but the question remains open as to who loves whom and whether it is culturally acceptable to expose the names. This dilemma is usually addressed by writing the first letter of each name; see Figure 5Figure 5. This method makes the mural readable to the public but is mostly comprehensible to the two lovers.

Figure 5

Figure 5. An emotional wall writing, Heliopolis, Cairo, 2018. The author.

In popular media and policy reports, wall writers are often stereotyped as vandals whose writings could and should be erased [12]. However, Van Loon presents a different view of mural writers’ behaviour, suggesting that they do much more than “just writing a name” ([13]: p. 1). For example, wall-chalkings in the context of Pakistan are “a particular type of graffiti and an alternate means of communication that is patronised by various local agencies” ([5]: p. 2). Because of the notion of vandalism, the informal microeconomy is denied access to city resources. Moreover, since cultural diversity is a keystone of the liveable city, denying citizens their right to expression is unjust.

As wall writing affects the consistency and “visual order” of the urban form, urban designers see it as “out of order” and a meaningless action. However, the “Urban Order” URO team took upon themselves the responsibility to demonstrate that urban order signifies a dynamic relationship between social life in the city and its physical environment. This challenges the regularity and visual order that have emerged with overall regulation, control, or use of force. The aim of URO is to develop new transdisciplinary methods for harnessing the potentials of existing urban orders as a basis for creating more liveable and democratic cities ([14]: p. 4).

The city is in motion; it is complex, and accepting that complexity is crucial to understanding its liveability [15]. This statement raises a question: whether wall writing is a form of subculture or a product of cultural diversity and a lack of municipal control? Cairo’s complexity stems from its dynamic and static components. Because Cairo is ever-changing and complex, listening to the characteristics and typology of its static components, such as streets and buildings, freezes the city within an enframed picture. On the other hand, mural art is better suited to the city’s dynamic reality. It is open to reshaping and offers multiple interpretations.

The author argues that different groups of wall writers develop distinct memories that may relate to a sense of place. Their intentions go beyond vandalism to storytelling. Moreover, the author argues that wall writing is the product of cultural diversity and an informal microeconomic tool for affordable access to city resources. Meanwhile, wall writing is an excellent source of urban stories and memories.

To pinpoint the cultural and economic importance of wall writing, it is understood as stories that both affect and are affected by urban memory. Based on insights from the case studies, our aim is to harness the potential of the different types and meanings of wall writings. To answer the study question, we first need to synthesise the fragmented literature by describing the elements of wall writing and their hidden meanings. Memory does not offer straightforward explanatory power. It is meaningful only when connected to historical questions and problems. Via methods and theories, memory is illuminating. At the centre of this study is an investigation into how writing on walls can articulate the connections among culture, society, and memory.

This study is conducted between January 2025 and March 2026 in three areas in Cairo. The first is a primary street in the Khalifa district, a historic area that evolved especially from the 18^th to the 20^th centuries. The second area is Matareia, a low- to middle-income housing developed during the 20^th century, and the third is Heliopolis, a middle- to high-income housing that evolved during the 20^th century. Choosing these three areas investigates the impact of historic, cultural and socioeconomic aspects on wall writing. Petrucci proposed a series of key aspects for understanding wall writing: the social function of writing, the social use of writing, monumental writing, graphic space and writing space, the domain of graphic space, and the programme of graphic exhibition. This is especially true when the functions performed by different materials do not depend on whether they are handwritten or printed (cf. [11]: p. 58).

The author followed Evan and Jones’s suggestion concerning walking go-along observation and interviews [16]. The walking go-along methodology helps reveal the complex connections among people’s hidden or unnoticed habitual relationships with place and the murals. Through walking go-along observation, the author explores wall writing and its hidden stories. To investigate how ordinary people receive writing, stories, and information. However, because this carries the risk of bias stemming from the author’s academic experience, spontaneous interviews were included. Those interviews took the form of social communications rather than formal questioning. This methodology helped the author explore how walking through the city without a predesigned scheme introduced spatial stories that reveal residues of conflict and allow for mobile memorialization.

2. Religious Wall Writing

Official calligraphy and wall writing in Cairo began with the city’s founding in the late 10^th century. The Fatimid established the city, and one of their iconic mosques is named after the Calif Al-Ḥākim. Today, it is in the heart of Islamic Cairo, standing at its northern gate. Al-Ḥākim significantly enhanced the use of officially sponsored writing in urban social networks. He used calligraphy to assert his authority as Imām and to express his power to all who beheld him. His mosque features bands of calligraphy on the minarets and the monumental portal. Dignitaries visiting the palace in the royal complex passed by this mosque because they customarily entered Cairo through the northern gate, Bāb al-Futūḥ. Passing by al-Ḥākim Mosque, observers see officially sponsored writing displayed in an innovative assemblage. From the pedestrian’s viewpoint, the Ḥākim Mosque represented the new dynasty’s public image [17]. The author cannot help but speculate that the mosque was intended as a facelift for the new, mighty dynasty for non-Fatimid travellers, with its powerful representation and detailed calligraphy. For centuries, the practice of engraving Qur’anic verses on mosque façades has been a tradition in official religious architecture.

This concept was introduced to public memory through written bands cited from the Qur’an and inscriptions on or around the entrance and on the façade. Calligraphy was employed on indoor and outdoor walls to convey verbal communication to observers walking along the street and interacting with the mosque’s façade; see Figure 6Figure 6. Countless mosques from the Ayyubid, Mamluk and Ottoman eras promoted calligraphy writing on their façades. The engraved text, however, evolved rapidly with different styles from the 11^th to the 17^th centuries.

Figure 6

Figure 6. A calligraphic band on Bybars al-Jashankir Mosque dated to the 14^th century. Islamic Cairo, taken in 2024. The author.

In modern times, texts cited from the Qur’an and the Prophet Muhammad are widely used in the Khalifa and Matareia. What is remarkable in those texts is that they are drawn with much care. Educated and well-trained Calligraphers were commissioned for such a significant task; see Figure 7Figure 7 and Figure 8Figure 8. However, one can notice religious texts in Heliopolis, written by children or young individuals using chalk or simple tools; see Figure 9Figure 9 and Figure 10Figure 10. Religious wall writing is widely used in shops, residential buildings, and at entrances, as well as during religious events. It is considered a form of blessing, protection from others’ envy (Hassad), and recognition of the source of sustenance, God. The author speculates that the shift from engraved calligraphy in historic religious architecture to painted or written text in contemporary residential and commercial contexts is due to financial and cultural constraints. Remarkably, religious texts occupy the focal point at the building entrance and on the shop façade and are visible from the pedestrian level; see Figure 11Figure 11 and Figure 12Figure 12.

Figure 7

Figure 7. Religious wall writing by a professional calligrapher, Khalifa, Cairo, 2026. The author.

Figure 8

Figure 8. A carefully designed religious wall writing, Matareia, Cairo, 2025. The author.

Figure 9

Figure 9. A chalk writing on a concrete column by a toddler (Spelling mistakes and slang), Heliopolis, Cairo, 2023. The author.

Figure 10

Figure 10. A religious wall writing (Painting) by a non-professional individual, Khalifa, Cairo, 2026. The author.

Figure 11

Figure 11. A religious writing above a residential entrance, Khalifa, Cairo, 2026. The author.

Figure 12

Figure 12. A religious text in a residential balcony, Matareia, Cairo, 2025. The author.

As religious texts are written on private property and were mostly commissioned or accepted by the owners, they break no geographical morality of the sort (for more details on the geographic morality, see [18]). This means that the artist takes time to produce the work, as there is less fear of reprisal from state authorities and the piece itself enjoys a greater degree of permanence. In addition to religious writings, religious stickers were found on lampposts, at entrances, and on shop doors. This is because the medium requires a spot on which the sticker can be affixed properly; see Figure 13Figure 13.

Figure 13

Figure 13. Religious stickers on metal doors, Matareia, Cairo, 2025. The author.

3. Commercial Wall Writing

Commercial writing fills Cairo’s public spaces with continuous information. It is spray-painted on the wall, written spontaneously with chalk or jumbo markers, rendered in vivid colour, or printed on paper and affixed to the wall. A common feature of Cairo’s commercial writing is primarily an advertisement for a particular service or product; see Figure 14Figure 14.

Figure 14

Figure 14. Commercial wall writing, Heliopolis, Cairo, 2024. The author.

Commercial murals in Cairo are mostly created by individuals, whose work ranges from professional to amateur. They are continually adjusted, added to, crossed out, or removed. While commercial advertisements are informative, they are short-lived, and erasures, alterations, and overwriting make them not only intertextual but often also illegible [19]. As writings appear and disappear rapidly, they render the walls of ongoing, unfinished layers of information. Figure 14Figure 14 demonstrates such rendering, layering and additions. Adding more information in the place makes the wall richer. A crucial rule is that a writer should not paint over existing graffiti [20]. Hence, a mural is inherently linked to respect and territoriality [21]. On the other hand, there is a sense of competition among writers. This competition can create an information-overloaded wall, depending on the wall’s location (see Figure 8Figure 8 and Figure 14Figure 14).

This is because, along with content, the choice of location is a critical part of the messaging ([5]: p. 4). Plumbers, electricians, and marriage arrangers, among others, vie for the most visible walls on which to announce their services and attempt to mark certain areas as “theirs”. This is particularly practised on walls surrounding vacant building lots in Heliopolis (see Figure 14Figure 14), on residential walls, and on public installations such as electrical rooms or flyovers in Khalifa and Matareia.

4. Visual Perception, Experience and Memory

Memory cannot be isolated from place, since it is an exploration of a shared identity that unites a social group ([22]: p. 1389). Since people’s perception of space is crucial to information collection, it is important to understand and measure it. Perception and comprehension may differ among individuals. Various factors affect visual perception, including the individual’s interests and experience ([23]: p. 135), the meaning of the observed subject, and its location [24]-[26]. Furthermore, how the writing is presented, its story, its relationship to other contextual writings, and its colours are also crucial (see Figure 8Figure 8). Moreover, the wall writing will be effective if it creates lasting memories.

Nevertheless, what is different between each image? Draschkow, Nobre and van Ede [27] provide robust evidence that spatial organisation is critical for visual working memory. Increasing the spatial separation between visual objects reduces their competitive effect. Pertzov and Husain [28] found that the less the objects are separated in space, the more they compete for limited processing resources, leading to interference and increasing the likelihood of feature swapping. The competitive effect between texts is heightened by their intensity; see Figure 15Figure 15. Their high intensity creates an information conflict that requires significant time to be encoded. Some texts are expected to be forgotten; others might be confused with competing texts; others may be remembered (compare Figure 12Figure 12 with Figure 14Figure 14 and Figure 15Figure 15). This notion is not limited to texts; it also applies to symbols and abstracts. Our visual working memory is flexible and can store abstract representations of visual information in formats relevant to future behaviour ([29]: pp. 16-22). Nonetheless, if the writer wishes to indicate a particular place with signs, using similar signs elsewhere confuses visual working memory. This is the case with Ezbet Hamada’s street art; similar signs were adopted throughout the area, creating a negative impact on local place diversity by constructing a collective identity [4]. This might explain why, in countless cases, emotional wall writing was presented on blank walls (Figure 5Figure 5). The author never found competitive emotional writings within three areas.

Figure 15

Figure 15. A high-intensity commercial mural, Matareia Square, Cairo, 2025. The author.

As encoding in visual working memory is related to the text, location, and relationships with other writings, there is a notion of existing rules among mural writers ([13]: p. 5). The rule of “not going over” is broadly agreed upon. This rule prohibits putting graffiti on monuments, religious buildings, private homes and statues [30]. Although this rule seems to be respected in Cairo, there are examples in which it was not respected, either in Cairo or in Istanbul; see Figure 16Figure 16.

Figure 16

Figure 16. A “going over” wall writing in Khalifa, Cairo, 2026. The author.

Memory is a fundamental aspect of human cognition, essential for everyday functioning and the acquisition of knowledge ([31]: p. 1), [32]. Everything is a memory and memory is everything ([22]: p. 1388), but how does it work? Visual perception of public space reflects cognitive processes and the progressive comparison between the past and present [33]. This creates visual working memory, which relies on the brain’s ability to construct temporary representations of place. Visual working memory processes are divided into three distinct phases: encoding, maintenance, and recollection (remembering). Although these phases are well established, the precise mechanisms by which spatial and temporal information contribute to each phase remain poorly understood ([29]: p. 13). Encoding in visual working memory is related to experience, the way information is presented, and its value to the reader. The more valuable the information, the stronger its maintenance will become. Remembering the experience (recollection) is easy when the memory is maintained [34]-[37].

5. Meanings of Wall Writing in Cairo

To be encoded, wall writing must be useful to the observer. A contemporary example of the usefulness of wall writing is the study conducted by the Centre for Student Success Office at a Midwestern University in the United States. It started the Conversation Wall project in summer 2015. The physical wall platform was chosen because the study wanted to create a space on campus where students can freely express themselves. Hoping that the wall would attract students whose expressions and interactions are often restricted in face-to-face classroom settings ([8]: p. 48). The usefulness of wall writing is not limited to brainstorming as in this example; it must have other importance, otherwise it would not be practised publicly. For commercial use, wall writing in Cairo is an affordable and effective way to advertise merchandise or services. It crosses over the formal, expensive, and big-corporation-controlled advertisement medium. Emotional, self-expression and religious wall writings, however, have no economic or financial usefulness. So why are they practised? To answer such a question, we need to distinguish between the writer’s intentions and the reader’s interests. Recording one’s own experience becomes a testimony of a person and their life; “the gesture of testimony emerges as a possible action in the present” ([38]: p. 139); “I live here”, “or I was here”; see Figure 17Figure 17. While the writer’s intentions vary between self-expression, religious grounds, identifying a place or saving a memory, those intentions might not be of interest to the reader. The reader might encode and remember specific information and neglect others. However, if the text says something of interest to the reader, it can be better maintained.

5.1. Silent Stories of the Urban Wall in Cairo

For as long as we can say, it has been a common human practice to tell stories and sing songs. While stories and songs appear to be shared features of human societies, the crafting of stories and the composition of poems are always contested ([39]: p. 15). Ancient Egyptians and the officials of Islamic Cairo did not advertise merchandise or commercial services by writing on temple or mosque walls. They were saying something; registering information, selling stories or decorating the wall. Ancient Egyptians were selling stories about life and death, costumes, daily

Figure 17

Figure 17. Identifying a residential entrance by writing the owner’s name, Khalifa, Cairo, 2026. The author.

life, agricultural and hunting activities, and the afterlife. Historic Muslim mosques in Cairo were decorated with Quranic citations, transforming the text from just an information source into a source of beauty and livability. The story about the “Jade Pillar that holds the sky” or the story about the magistrate Yang Bi who ‘holds the weight of the nation’ are told by writing (review the introduction). So what stories do religious, sociocultural, or emotional writing in Cairo tell? The need to say something; a story, a moral suggestion, information, or hopes and dreams are motivations for non-commercial writing in Cairo. As many types of texts provoke stories, they become a communication strategy that emphasises the power of narrative to convey values, meanings, and identities [40]. It is a key learning resource for humans. Moreno argued that people think narratively rather than argumentatively ([41]: pp. 2-3). Feelings and sensations are articulated through storytelling more than through other sciences or fields [42]. Stories are not simple. To create emotional links between the storyteller and the audience, or the observer (for urban narratives), it is necessary to build an atmosphere. Cities emerge as spaces of storytelling [43]. In other words, a medium for silent storytelling. The mode of storytelling and murals, movement and the body are articulations of a narrative process. As we move through the urban environment, we become enmeshed in a process of narrating ourselves, our memories and the city’s stories. In our study, the place is the atmosphere, and the wall is the silent storyteller. The place carries some simple and recognisable ideas and images that are projected to offer an identity for those coming from the outside. On the other hand, the wall is the sign, story or memory carrier.

Marshall McLuhan’s famous phrase “The medium is the message” (cf. [34]: p. 139) provokes the question: is the medium the story, or is it a story carrier? In other words, does the wall carry the story, is it part of the story, or is it the story? In our case studies, and according to the individuals interviewed, the wall is a carrier that becomes part of the story. For example, in the Matareia, describing Figure 15Figure 15 can only be done by describing the flyover and the place. The place or the wall has an active role in creating experiences. The place is the context in which the observer moves or rests. It is part of their experience and memory. This might create a conflict between the story, the wall and the individual experience from the context. For example, the context of Tahrir’s Oblique (see Figure 2Figure 2) conflicts with the historic value of the artefact. While conflict is the beating heart of every story, the place operates as an interface, where social practices negotiate meaning with collective memory and visual aesthetics. This is because the narrative paradigm enables the reconstruction of relations among space, memory, everyday practices, and communicative infrastructures ([43]: pp. 61-62). Wall stories can start by explaining “who lives where”, “who was here”, “what happened when I visited someone”, “how to describe my visit”, “how a particular place articulates”, or “what I saw on a specific wall”; see Figure 18Figure 18. Religious wall writing tells the story of those individuals who express the importance of religion in their lives. It also tells stories about shop owners who express their honesty or protect their business from envy; see Figure 19Figure 19. Reading and remembering wall stories require knowing why they are written. For example, Hajj wall writing tells the story of an individual whose financial means covered the cost of the ritual (see Figure 18Figure 18). “A. loves R.” in Figure 5Figure 5 tells the story of the boy who is trying to impress a girl; he might have succeeded or failed. Such uncertainty leads to variations in how the story ends. Urban narratives come in countless forms; they create a hierarchical structure. Hierarchical narratives give way to relational maps of meaning, and uniform messages transform into layered stories ([43]: p. 62) interwoven with the movement in place. This is obvious if we relate each wall writing to its context and the overall visit.

Figure 18

Figure 18. A wall writing around an entrance; celebrating the owner’s Hajji, Shobra, Cairo, 2026. The author.

Figure 19

Figure 19. A wall writing over a shop, citing: “whoever depends on God must not fear poverty”, Matareia, Cairo, 2025. The author.

5.2. Silent Stories and Place Identity

As wall writing becomes a landmark, it functions as an element in place identity (see Figure 17Figure 17 and Figure 18Figure 18). The identity of a place does not arise naturally; it is a socially constructed process that is constantly negotiated [44]. Wall stories contribute to place contestation and negotiation, which are parts of intangible place identity [45]-[47]. If writers respected the rule of “not going over”, then the negotiation process succeeded. Otherwise, contestation arises from competing writers and from disrespecting the unspoken rules of wall writing (see Figure 16Figure 16). Urban narratives reinforce the place identity by offering frameworks that are emotionally or culturally understood and collectively remembered. This is because stories are expressed through cultural and emotional writings, and provide symbolic resources that articulate urban identity [48]. Reading a love wall writing, for example, tells the story of the boy, because a girl in Egypt would not publicly express her love in a text. As such, the letter “A” in Figure 5Figure 5 represents the boy’s name. Urban narratives can foster emotional bonds with local places while simultaneously strengthening their distinctiveness at both local and global levels ([49]: p. 3). Various forms of wall writing create or evoke memories of topics or local issues. Through their works, writers frequently examine the traits that shape social and place identities. This is because identity helps define who they are as people, as a culture, or as a nation ([10]: pp. 40-41).

Each of the three cases introduced various identities. Khalifa presented a religious identity, and Matareia presented a mixed religious and commercial identity. The third case, Heliopolis, featured marginal commercial wall writing and a stronger official advertisement, both mixed with English and bilingual language (English/Arabic). However, such classification might create the impression of a geographic or socioeconomic distribution of diverse communities. This impression, nevertheless, is unsound, as it conflicts with the economic and cultural aspects of the way of life and with cultural colonialism in Heliopolis [46][50][51].

In Heliopolis, there is a long history of cultural westernisation. English became the language of superiority and prosperity [52]-[54]. This created deeply rooted westernised cultural memories and way of life. The memory of the past and its making became a shared, collective memory across successive generations through “vehicles of memory” or memory carriers such as books, films, museums, commemorations, and others ([22]: p. 1386). These vehicles introduced English as the language of high-quality society among Cairo’s cultural elites. As writing served as a space for collective thought in Heliopolis, it became natural to name places or shops in English and to abandon the rural (Baladi) custom of religious wall writing. An interviewer said, “Faith is in the heart, not the wall”; another interviewer said, “Faith does not need wall writing to be presented; it is a private relationship with God”.

6. Conclusions

Within the premise of this study, the following conclusions are drawn:

Among the different types of wall writings, religious and commercial texts are significant. Alongside professionally trained calligraphers, unprofessional writing and stickers are found. Other spontaneous writing expresses emotion and general ideas, or cheers for a football team, and is practised by individuals. Generally, non-professional writers use slang and are rife with grammatical and spelling mistakes. Writing on walls is the ordinary people’s means of storytelling. It tells stories about their emotions, cultural values and interests. It goes beyond the official and elite narratives to create narratives that shape the collective place identity.

Religious wall writing goes beyond Qur’anic citations to include the registration of memories of the writing event, style, and emotions. It is practised by professionals. Although, along with history, religious wall writing transformed from the engraved form to the sprayed, painted, or written forms, it seems to have respected the rule of “not going over”. Religious wall writing introduces the observer to an emotional religious place identity of blessing and protection from evil. It creates a richer environment full of stories at different hierarchical levels, as it occupies the focal point of the wall, place or space.

While the religious wall writing respected the rule of density in visual perception, commercial wall writing did not. Writers used every blank space on the wall to display advertisements, especially within traffic nodes such as Matareia, and it is commissioned or written by the owner. Commercial writing presents a different form of place memory and depicts the memory of commercial services and merchandise. Memories of very dense wall writing; walls full of painting, writing, colours and stickers. Commercial wall writing comes to overcome wealthy corporations’ barriers, using public facilities such as flyovers and electric rooms significantly. Among the three case studies, Heliopolis presented limited commercial and religious wall writings.

Given the plurality of wall writing’s manifestations and the interplay between messages and places, wall writing contributes to Cairo’s cultural diversity. Nevertheless, even the ensemble of wall writing and place identity tells stories about the layers of history and cultural diversity.

As wall writing in Cairo depicts memories, hope and emotions of those who are not allowed to express themselves, it contributes to the city’s liveability. Nonetheless, such a liveability is not designed to be assessed by the degree of attractiveness for investors or expatriates.

References

1.. Badland, H., Roberts, R., Butterworth, I. and Giles-Corti, B. (2015) How Liveable Is Melbourne? Conceptualising and Testing Urban Liveability Indicators: Progress to Date. McCaughey Centre, University of Melbourne; Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274376462_How_Liveable_is_Melbourne_Conceptualising_and_testing_urban_liveability_indicators_Progress_to_date Badland, H. Roberts, R. Butterworth, I. Giles-Corti, B. Centre, U 2015 How Liveable Is Melbourne? Conceptualising and Testing Urban Liveability Indicators: Progress to Date McCaughey Centre

2.. Badland, H., Whitzman, C., Lowe, M., Davern, M., Aye, L., Butterworth, I., et al. (2014) Urban Liveability: Emerging Lessons from Australia for Exploring the Potential for Indicators to Measure the Social Determinants of Health. Social Science & Medicine, 111, 64-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.04.003 10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.04.00324762261https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.04.003 Badland, H. Whitzman, C. Lowe, M. Davern, M. Aye, L. Butterworth, I. 2014 Urban Liveability: Emerging Lessons from Australia for Exploring the Potential for Indicators to Measure the Social Determinants of Health Social Science & Medicine 111 10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.04.003 24762261

3.. Alderton, A., Davern, M., Nitvimol, K., Butterworth, I., Higgs, C., Ryan, E., et al. (2019) What Is the Meaning of Urban Liveability for a City in a Low-to-Middle-Income Country? Contextualising Liveability for Bangkok, Thailand. Globalization and Health, 15, Article No. 51. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-019-0484-8 10.1186/s12992-019-0484-831362751https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-019-0484-8 Alderton, A. Davern, M. Nitvimol, K. Butterworth, I. Higgs, C. Ryan, E. Bangkok, T 2019 What Is the Meaning of Urban Liveability for a City in a Low-to-Middle-Income Country? Contextualising Liveability for Bangkok, Thailand Globalization and Health 15 No 10.1186/s12992-019-0484-8 31362751

4.. Saad, S. (2026) Street Stories: Graffiti and the Urban Memory. Journal of Art and Design, 6, 42-64. https://doi.org/10.31586/jad.2026.6528 10.31586/jad.2026.6528https://doi.org/10.31586/jad.2026.6528 Saad, S. 2026 Street Stories: Graffiti and the Urban Memory Journal of Art and Design 6 10.31586/jad.2026.6528

5.. Khan, S.S. (2024) The Writing on the Wall: Identity, Placemaking and Territoriality in Karachi’s Graffiti Culture. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 7, Article ID: 100214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2024.100214 10.1016/j.wss.2024.100214https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2024.100214 Khan, S.S. Identity, P Wellbeing, S 2024 The Writing on the Wall: Identity, Placemaking and Territoriality in Karachi’s Graffiti Culture Wellbeing 7 100214 ID 10.1016/j.wss.2024.100214

6.. Reeder, R.R., Pounder, Z., Figueroa, A., Jüllig, A. and Azañón, E. (2024) Non-Visual Spatial Strategies Are Effective for Maintaining Precise Information in Visual Working Memory. Cognition, 251, Article ID: 105907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105907 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.10590739067318https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105907 Reeder, R.R. Pounder, Z. Figueroa, A. 2024 Non-Visual Spatial Strategies Are Effective for Maintaining Precise Information in Visual Working Memory Cognition 251 105907 ID 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105907 39067318

7.. Mathuria, S. (2023) Walking, Storytelling and Melancholy Survivals: Memorialization of the ‘Troubles’ in Belfast’s City Centre. Cultural Geographies, 31, 213-230. https://doi.org/10.1177/14744740231203710 10.1177/14744740231203710https://doi.org/10.1177/14744740231203710 Mathuria, S. Walking, S 2023 Walking, Storytelling and Melancholy Survivals: Memorialization of the ‘Troubles’ in Belfast’s City Centre Cultural Geographies 31 10.1177/14744740231203710

8.. Yamada, M. and La Fontaine, C. (2021) “Conversation Wall”: A Study of Anonymous Texts Written on the Wall of a College Building. Language and Society, 2, 47-62. https://www.language-and-society.org/conversation-wall-a-study-of-anonymous-texts-written-on-the-wall-of-a-college-building/ Yamada, M. Fontaine, C. 2021 “Conversation Wall”: A Study of Anonymous Texts Written on the Wall of a College Building Language and Society 2

9.. Poupard, D.J. (2021) Asian Anthropology, 20, 210-229. https://doi.org/10.1080/1683478x.2021.1889788 10.1080/1683478x.2021.1889788https://doi.org/10.1080/1683478x.2021.1889788 Poupard, D.J. 2021 Asian Anthropology, 20, 210-229 10.1080/1683478x.2021.1889788

10.. Choudhury, S. (2025) Writing on the Walls: From Belfast to Darjeeling. Irish Journalof Anthropology, 25, 1-116. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392126779_WRITING_ON_THE_WALLS_FROM_BELFAST_TO_DARJEELING Choudhury, S. 2025 Writing on the Walls: From Belfast to Darjeeling Irish Journal of Anthropology 25

11.. Gómez, M. (1993) The Writing on Our Walls: Finding Solutions through Distinguishing Graffiti Art from Graffiti Vandalism. University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform, 26, 633-707. https://doi.org/10.36646/mjlr.26.3.writing 10.36646/mjlr.26.3.writinghttps://doi.org/10.36646/mjlr.26.3.writing 1993 The Writing on Our Walls: Finding Solutions through Distinguishing Graffiti Art from Graffiti Vandalism University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform 26 10.36646/mjlr.26.3.writing

12.. Kramer, R. (2010) Moral Panics and Urban Growth Machines: Official Reactions to Graffiti in New York City, 1990-2005. Qualitative Sociology, 33, 297-311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11133-010-9154-0 10.1007/s11133-010-9154-0https://doi.org/10.1007/s11133-010-9154-0 Kramer, R. 2010 Moral Panics and Urban Growth Machines: Official Reactions to Graffiti in New York City, 1990-2005 Qualitative Sociology 33 10.1007/s11133-010-9154-0

13.. Van Loon, J. (2014) “Just Writing Your Name?” An Analysis of the Spatial Behaviour of Graffiti Writers in Amsterdam. Belgeo, 3, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.4000/belgeo.13062 10.4000/belgeo.13062https://doi.org/10.4000/belgeo.13062 Loon, J. 2014 “Just Writing Your Name?” An Analysis of the Spatial Behaviour of Graffiti Writers in Amsterdam Belgeo 3 10.4000/belgeo.13062

14.. Jenisch, N., Buerk, T. and Nielsen, M. (2018) Occupying Urban Seams. Arhus University, Denmark, URO Report #4. https://www.academia.edu/35568195/Urban_Orders_2018_URO_Report_4_Occupying_Urban_Seams Jenisch, N. Buerk, T. Nielsen, M. University, D 2018 Occupying Urban Seams Arhus University

15.. Friedmann, J. (2019) Thinking about Complexity and Planning. International Planning Studies, 24, 13-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/13563475.2018.1517594 10.1080/13563475.2018.1517594https://doi.org/10.1080/13563475.2018.1517594 Friedmann, J. 2019 Thinking about Complexity and Planning International Planning Studies 24 10.1080/13563475.2018.1517594

16.. Evans, J. and Jones, P. (2011) The Walking Interview: Methodology, Mobility and Place. Applied Geography, 31, 849-858. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2010.09.005 10.1016/j.apgeog.2010.09.005https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2010.09.005 Evans, J. Jones, P. Methodology, M 2011 The Walking Interview: Methodology, Mobility and Place Applied Geography 31 10.1016/j.apgeog.2010.09.005

17.. Bierman, I. (1988) Writing Signs: The Fatimid Public Text. Berkeley. https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/public/book/writing-signs-the-fatimid-public-text.html Bierman, I. 1988 Writing Signs: The Fatimid Public Text

18.. Mcauliffe, C. (2012) Graffiti or Street Art? Negotiating the Moral Geographies of the Creative City. Journal of Urban Affairs, 34, 189-206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9906.2012.00610.x 10.1111/j.1467-9906.2012.00610.xhttps://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9906.2012.00610.x Mcauliffe, C. 2012 Graffiti or Street Art? Negotiating the Moral Geographies of the Creative City Journal of Urban Affairs 34 10.1111/j.1467-9906.2012.00610.x

19.. Schielke, S. (2018) A City of Walls. A Photo Essay on Writing on Walls in Alexandria, 2011-2017. Égypte/ Monde Arabe, 17, 157-191. https://doi.org/10.4000/ema.3858 10.4000/ema.3858https://doi.org/10.4000/ema.3858 Schielke, S. 2018 A City of Walls A Photo Essay on Writing on Walls in Alexandria 2011 10.4000/ema.3858

20.. Cooper, M. and Chalfant, H. (2026) Subway Art. Thames & Hudson. https://www.thamesandhudson.com/products/subway-art Cooper, M. Chalfant, H. 2026 Subway Art

21.. Mubi Brighenti, A. (2010) At the Wall: Graffiti Writers, Urban Territoriality, and the Public Domain. Space and Culture, 13, 315-332. https://doi.org/10.1177/1206331210365283 10.1177/1206331210365283https://doi.org/10.1177/1206331210365283 Brighenti, A. Writers, U 2010 At the Wall: Graffiti Writers, Urban Territoriality, and the Public Domain Space and Culture 13 10.1177/1206331210365283

22.. Confino, A. (1997) Collective Memory and Cultural History: Problems of Method. The American Historical Review, 102, 1386-1412. https://doi.org/10.2307/2171069 10.2307/2171069https://doi.org/10.2307/2171069 Confino, A. 1997 Collective Memory and Cultural History: Problems of Method The American Historical Review 102 10.2307/2171069

23.. Zivali Turhan, T. (2022) Public Space as Cultural Resource. Türkiye Bilimler Akademisi Kültür Envanteri Dergisi, 19, 134-144. https://doi.org/10.22520/tubaked.2019.19.008 10.22520/tubaked.2019.19.008https://doi.org/10.22520/tubaked.2019.19.008 Turhan, T. 2022 Public Space as Cultural Resource Türkiye Bilimler Akademisi Kültür Envanteri Dergisi 19 10.22520/tubaked.2019.19.008

24.. Arjuna, D., Hapiz, H.Y. and Ibrahim, Y. (2025) Visual Communication in Public Art: A Systematic Review of Approaches to Place-Making (2015-2025). International Journal of Modern Education, 7, 890-901. https://doi.org/10.35631/ijmoe.728061 10.35631/ijmoe.728061https://doi.org/10.35631/ijmoe.728061 Arjuna, D. Hapiz, H.Y. Ibrahim, Y. 2025 Visual Communication in Public Art: A Systematic Review of Approaches to Place-Making (2015-2025) International Journal of Modern Education 7 10.35631/ijmoe.728061

25.. Ma, R., Dong, Y., Liang, Z. and Wang, Q. (2026) How Built Environment Characteristics Influence Urban Vitality in Historic Districts: The Mediating Role of Pedestrian Perception. Buildings, 16, Article 2663. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16132663 10.3390/buildings16132663https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16132663 Ma, R. Dong, Y. Liang, Z. Wang, Q. 2026 How Built Environment Characteristics Influence Urban Vitality in Historic Districts: The Mediating Role of Pedestrian Perception Buildings 16 2663 10.3390/buildings16132663

26.. Yang, C. and Zhang, Y. (2026) Assessing and Mapping Public Visual Perception across Urban Public Space Typologies Based on Geotagged Social Media Images. Applied Geography, 194, Article ID: 104097. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2026.104097 10.1016/j.apgeog.2026.104097https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2026.104097 Yang, C. Zhang, Y. 2026 Assessing and Mapping Public Visual Perception across Urban Public Space Typologies Based on Geotagged Social Media Images Applied Geography 194 104097 ID 10.1016/j.apgeog.2026.104097

27.. Draschkow, D., Nobre, A.C. and van Ede, F. (2022) Multiple Spatial Frames for Immersive Working Memory. Nature HumanBehaviour, 6, 536-544. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01245-y 10.1038/s41562-021-01245-y35058640https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01245-y Draschkow, D. Nobre, A.C. Ede, F. 2022 Multiple Spatial Frames for Immersive Working Memory Nature Human Behaviour 6 10.1038/s41562-021-01245-y 35058640

28.. Pertzov, Y. and Husain, M. (2014) The Privileged Role of Location in Visual Working Memory. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 76, 1914-1924. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-013-0541-y 10.3758/s13414-013-0541-y24027033https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-013-0541-y Pertzov, Y. Husain, M. Attention, P 2014 The Privileged Role of Location in Visual Working Memory Attention 76 10.3758/s13414-013-0541-y 24027033

29.. de Vries, E. (2025) Once upon a Time in Space: How Small Eye Movements Reveal the Organising Principles of Visual Working Memory. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Amsterdam. https://doi.org/10.5463/thesis.1068 10.5463/thesis.1068https://doi.org/10.5463/thesis.1068 Vries, E. Thesis, U 2025 Once upon a Time in Space: How Small Eye Movements Reveal the Organising Principles of Visual Working Memory Ph.D. Thesis 10.5463/thesis.1068

30.. Ferrell, J. and Weide, R.D. (2010) Spot Theory. City, 14, 48-62. https://doi.org/10.1080/13604810903525157 10.1080/13604810903525157https://doi.org/10.1080/13604810903525157 Ferrell, J. Weide, R.D. 2010 Spot Theory City 14 10.1080/13604810903525157

31.. Huynh, D.C., Fich, L.B. and Djebbara, Z. (2024) Landmarks and Space Geometry Enhances Memory. OSF. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/xhqt3 10.31234/osf.io/xhqt3https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/xhqt3 Huynh, D.C. Fich, L.B. Djebbara, Z. 2024 Landmarks and Space Geometry Enhances Memory 10.31234/osf.io/xhqt3

32.. Schacter, D.L., Norman, K.A. and Koutstaal, W. (1998) The Cognitive Neuroscience of Constructive Memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 289-318. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.289 10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.2899496626https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.289 Schacter, D.L. Norman, K.A. Koutstaal, W. 1998 The Cognitive Neuroscience of Constructive Memory Annual Review of Psychology 49 10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.289 9496626

33.. Del Aguila, M., Ghavampour, E. and Vale, B. (2019) Theory of Place in Public Space. Urban Planning, 4, 249-259. https://doi.org/10.17645/up.v4i2.1978 10.17645/up.v4i2.1978https://doi.org/10.17645/up.v4i2.1978 Aguila, M. Ghavampour, E. Vale, B. 2019 Theory of Place in Public Space Urban Planning 4 10.17645/up.v4i2.1978

34.. Dinis, F. (2023) Performativity of the Memory of Religious Places through Sound and Image. Religions, 14, Article 1137. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14091137 10.3390/rel14091137https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14091137 Dinis, F. 2023 Performativity of the Memory of Religious Places through Sound and Image Religions 14 1137 10.3390/rel14091137

35.. Connerton, P. (1989) How Societies Remember. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511628061 10.1017/cbo9780511628061https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511628061 Connerton, P. 1989 How Societies Remember 10.1017/cbo9780511628061

36.. Conway, M.A. and Loveday, C. (2015) Remembering, Imagining, False Memories & Personal Meanings. Consciousness and Cognition, 33, 574-581. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2014.12.002 10.1016/j.concog.2014.12.00225592676https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2014.12.002 Conway, M.A. Loveday, C. Remembering, I 2015 Remembering, Imagining, False Memories & Personal Meanings Consciousness and Cognition 33 10.1016/j.concog.2014.12.002 25592676

37.. Crinson, M. (2005) Urban Memory: History and Amnesia in the Modern City. Routledge. Crinson, M. 2005 Urban Memory: History and Amnesia in the Modern City

38.. Hudoshnyk, O. (2023) Oral History and Media: Platforms for Collecting Witness Stories. Synopsis: Text Context Media, 29, 139-145. https://doi.org/10.28925/2311-259x.2023.2.11 10.28925/2311-259x.2023.2.11https://doi.org/10.28925/2311-259x.2023.2.11 Hudoshnyk, O. 2023 Oral History and Media: Platforms for Collecting Witness Stories Synopsis: Text Context Media 29 10.28925/2311-259x.2023.2.11

39.. Schielke, S. and Saad Shehata, M. (2021) 1 Why Write, and Why Not Stop? In: Schielke, S. and Saad Shehata, M., Eds., Shared Margins, De Gruyter, 15-38. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110726305-002 10.1515/9783110726305-002https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110726305-002 Schielke, S. Shehata, M. Schielke, S. Shehata, M. Margins, D 2021 1 Why Write, and Why Not Stop? In: Schielke, S and Saad Shehata 15 10.1515/9783110726305-002

40.. Key, T.M., Keel, A.L., Czaplewski, A.J. and Olson, E.M. (2021) Brand Activism Change Agents: Strategic Storytelling for Impact and Authenticity. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 31, 1339-1355. https://doi.org/10.1080/0965254x.2021.1904435 10.1080/0965254x.2021.1904435https://doi.org/10.1080/0965254x.2021.1904435 Key, T.M. Keel, A.L. Czaplewski, A.J. Olson, E.M. 2021 Brand Activism Change Agents: Strategic Storytelling for Impact and Authenticity Journal of Strategic Marketing 31 10.1080/0965254x.2021.1904435

41.. Rivero Moreno, L.D. (2020) Sustainable City Storytelling: Cultural Heritage as a Resource for a Greener and Fairer Urban Development. Journal of Cultural Heritage Management and Sustainable Development, 10, 399-412. https://doi.org/10.1108/jchmsd-05-2019-0043 10.1108/jchmsd-05-2019-0043https://doi.org/10.1108/jchmsd-05-2019-0043 Moreno, L.D. 2020 Sustainable City Storytelling: Cultural Heritage as a Resource for a Greener and Fairer Urban Development Journal of Cultural Heritage Management and Sustainable Development 10 10.1108/jchmsd-05-2019-0043

42.. Zeile, P., et al. (2025) Urban Emotions—Tools of Integrating People’s Perception into Urban Planning. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277714333_Urban_Emotions_-_Tools_of_Integrating_People’s_Perception_into_Urban_Planning Zeile, P. 2025 Urban Emotions—Tools of Integrating People’s Perception into Urban Planning

43.. Cząba, M. (2025) The City as Narrative: Storytelling Alternatives to Place Marketing in the Age of VUCA and Mediatization. Social Communication Ethics, 1, 59-76. https://doi.org/10.15633/sce.01304 10.15633/sce.01304https://doi.org/10.15633/sce.01304 2025 The City as Narrative: Storytelling Alternatives to Place Marketing in the Age of VUCA and Mediatization Social Communication Ethics 1 10.15633/sce.01304

44.. Kavaratzis, M. and Hatch, M.J. (2019) The Elusive Destination Brand and the ATLAS Wheel of Place Brand Management. Journal of Travel Research, 60, 3-15. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287519892323 10.1177/0047287519892323https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287519892323 Kavaratzis, M. Hatch, M.J. 2019 The Elusive Destination Brand and the ATLAS Wheel of Place Brand Management Journal of Travel Research 60 10.1177/0047287519892323

45.. Saad, S. (2019) El-Kahira el-Tarykheya. Khetabat el-Sametien [Historic Cairo, Messages of the Silent]. Kotobna for Personal Publications. Saad, S. Cairo, M 2019 El-Kahira el-Tarykheya Khetabat el-Sametien [Historic Cairo

46.. Saad, S. (2020) Kakiret el-Tahaworat el-Kobra (1805-1950) [Great Urban Deformations’ Cairo: 1805-1950]. Kotobna Publications. Saad, S. 2020 Kakiret el-Tahaworat el-Kobra (1805-1950) [Great Urban Deformations’ Cairo: 1805-1950] 1805 1950

47.. Saad, S. (2024) Doing (In)justice? Cairene Place Naming and Politics of Forgetting. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11, 284-300. https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.1112.18081 10.14738/assrj.1112.18081https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.1112.18081 Saad, S. 2024 Doing (In)justice? Cairene Place Naming and Politics of Forgetting Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal 11 10.14738/assrj.1112.18081

48.. Sen, A. and Silverman, L. (2014) Making Place: Space and Embodiment in the City. Indiana University Press. Sen, A. Silverman, L. 2014 Making Place: Space and Embodiment in the City

49.. Rahmanto, A.N. and Fariza, M.R. (2025) Shaping Place Identity through Cultural Storytelling: Strategic Communication in a Small Mountain City. Frontiers in Communication, 10, Article 1713091. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2025.1713091 10.3389/fcomm.2025.1713091https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2025.1713091 Rahmanto, A.N. Fariza, M.R. 2025 Shaping Place Identity through Cultural Storytelling: Strategic Communication in a Small Mountain City Frontiers in Communication 10 1713091 10.3389/fcomm.2025.1713091

50.. Saad, S. (2023) A City in Shame: The Cairene Linguistic Landscape and Cultural Distinction. Current Urban Studies, 11, 232-254. https://doi.org/10.4236/cus.2023.112012 10.4236/cus.2023.112012https://doi.org/10.4236/cus.2023.112012 Saad, S. 2023 A City in Shame: The Cairene Linguistic Landscape and Cultural Distinction Current Urban Studies 11 10.4236/cus.2023.112012

51.. Saad, S. (2020) The Myth of Nasser’s Arabism. Cairo (1956-1970), a Political-Urban Paradox. International Journal of Engineering Applied Sciences and Technology, 5, 37-45. https://doi.org/10.33564/ijeast.2020.v05i05.007 10.33564/ijeast.2020.v05i05.007https://doi.org/10.33564/ijeast.2020.v05i05.007 Saad, S. 2020 The Myth of Nasser’s Arabism Cairo (1956-1970) 5 10.33564/ijeast.2020.v05i05.007

52.. Badie, B. (2000) The Imported State: The Westernization of the Political Order. The Stanford University Press. https://www.sup.org/books/sociology/imported-state Badie, B. 2000 The Imported State: The Westernization of the Political Order

53.. Mitchell, T. (1991) Colonising Egypt. University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520911666 10.1525/9780520911666https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520911666 Mitchell, T. 1991 Colonising Egypt 10.1525/9780520911666

54.. Saad, S. (2019) Cairo in the Age of Great Urban Transformations Changes in Street Patterns Only or a Shift in Power Networks as Well? The Second International Conference on Islamic Architectural Heritage: The Future and the Built Environment, Istanbul, 26-28 October 2019, 389-408. Saad, S. Environment, I 2019 Cairo in the Age of Great Urban Transformations Changes in Street Patterns Only or a Shift in Power Networks as Well? The Second International Conference on Islamic Architectural Heritage: The Future and the Built Environment, Istanbul, 26-28 October 2019, 389-408