The Impact of Work-Family Conflict on Job Satisfaction and Life Satisfaction of Female Prison Officers

The emergence of a heavy workload has disrupted the vital relationship that people have established between work and family and set the stage for the occurrence of work-family conflict. Based on this accession, this study examined the impact of work-family conflict on the job and life satisfaction of female prison officers from the sub-Saharan African context, specifically Ghana. A purposive sampling technique was employed and a sample size of 311 female prison officers from the Greater Accra and Eastern Regional command were selected. To analyse the data, the study employed partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) to test the hypotheses and regression confirmation of the SEM results. The study revealed that work-family conflict has a positive significant effect on job satisfaction. However, a negative relationship was established between work-family conflict and the life satisfaction of female prison officers. This study deepens our understanding of how work-family conflict influences job and life satisfaction in a collectivist culture, as well as points to the establishment of measures to reduce work-family conflict which can lead to a high level of life dissatisfaction among female prison officers.

• Work-Family Conflict
• Female Prison Officers
• Job Satisfaction
• Life Satisfaction
• Ghana

1. Introduction

The modern workforce is experiencing profound shifts, with an increasing number of individuals navigating the complexities of balancing work responsibilities with familial obligations ( Grandey, Cordeiro, & Crouter, 2018 ). Work-family conflict refers to the challenges individuals face when the demands of their work roles interfere with their ability to fulfil family responsibilities, and vice versa ( Voydanoff, 2017 ). In recent years, there has been growing recognition of the unique experiences and challenges faced by women in the workforce, particularly in traditionally male-dominated professions such as law enforcement ( Cromartie, 2020 ; Tims, 2024 ; Redick, 2024 ). One such profession in which the interplay between work and family roles is particularly salient is policing, where the demands of maintaining public safety often clash with personal and family commitments ( Yanchus & Eby, 2022 ). Work-family conflict occurs when family and work demands are incompatible ( Šimunić & Gregov, 2012 ; Sousa et al., 2023 ). Theoretical and empirical studies indicate that work-family conflict functions in a bidirectional manner: work-to-family (WIF) and family-to-work conflict (FIW) ( Matthews, Kath, & Barnes-Farrell, 2010 ). When roles related to a person’s job interfere with the roles of the family, it is termed work-to-family. On the other hand, family-to-work conflict arises when family activities interfere with job roles. The cause of work-family-conflict has been classified into three main groups such as time-based conflict, mental base conflict, behaviour base conflict ( Wang, 2024 ). Time-based conflict refers to the difficulty an individual has in balancing work and family within a short time frame, whereas mental-based conflict is concerned with the mental stress one experiences in one domain, allowing it to affect the needs of another ( Wang, 2024 ). Lastly, the behavioural base conflict deals with an individual displaying different expectations of behaviour in professional and family settings ( Wang, 2024 ). Several studies have revealed that the clash between family and work roles has an undesirable effect on an individual’s well-being and health ( Almutairi, 2017 ; Ádám, Györffy, & Susánszky, 2008 ). In particular, female prison officers may encounter distinct challenges stemming from the intersection of their gender roles with the demanding nature of police work ( Kalliath et al., 2017 ). Despite progress in gender equality within law enforcement, women continue to be underrepresented and face unique barriers related to work-family balance and job satisfaction ( Lazazzara, Tims, & de Bloom, 2021 ).

By virtue of the significance of family and work, a person’s job, family, and life satisfaction are hinged on how one can balance the two domains. In this study, satisfaction was measured in two dimensions: job satisfaction and life satisfaction ( Aryee, Fields, & Luk, 1999 ). Zhao et al. (2011) defined job satisfaction as the degree to which workers in an organisation have a positive attitude towards their job. In other words, the level of satisfaction is determined by the level of job complexity and job importance, which differs among individuals. Abugre (2014) also defined job satisfaction as an individual’s subjective feeling that reflects the extent to which his or her needs are met by the job. Studies have shown that job satisfaction is directly linked to employees’ working conditions, and that this level of satisfaction is affected by individual attitudes and personality traits. According to Lee et al. (2012) , job satisfaction is directly related to employees and overall organisational performance. According to Abugre (2014) , employees with low levels of job satisfaction may desire to leave their organisation if they are not empowered to change their job characteristics.

Life satisfaction has been identified as another crucial element that plays a critical role in a person’s subjective well-being ( Zhang & Liu, 2011 ; Achour et al., 2014 ). A positive appraisal of one’s life conditions, measured against predetermined expectations of the individual, is termed life satisfaction ( Cribb, 2000 ). It is important to note that these standards are not externally imposed but rather self-imposed. In other words, the judgment of satisfaction is based on the comparison of a person’s actual situation with what he claims to be his ideal standard. According to Lippman et al. (2011) , life satisfaction deals with the conviction that a person has about how well he or she can track his or her personal life and be happy with one’s own life. According to Aryee et al. (1999) , life satisfaction is a function of both job and family satisfaction. Michel et al. (2011) also affirmed that job and family satisfaction were strong predictors of life satisfaction.

In line with the above debate, this study proposes that work-family conflict can greatly influence one’s level of satisfaction with their job or life. Like any other security service in the world, Ghana’s prison service is male-dominated and poses several gender-related challenges. Within the context of law enforcement, female prison officers face unique challenges in balancing work and family responsibilities, which necessitate a deeper understanding of their experiences ( Yanchus & Eby, 2022 ). The Ghana prison service is one of many organisations under the Ministry of the Interior of Ghana. Female prison officers in Ghana may face cultural, organisational, and societal barriers that influence their experiences of work-family conflict and satisfaction ( Lazazzara, Tims, & de Bloom, 2021 ). Despite the increasing level of research in this area, there remains a gap in understanding the specific experiences of female prison officers regarding work-family conflict and satisfaction, such as job and life, in the sub-Sahara context, specifically Ghana.

Although the literature suggests that work-family conflict significantly affects job satisfaction among various occupational groups, it is unclear how this relationship manifests among female prison officers, particularly in Ghana. Examining these dynamics within the Ghana prison service can provide valuable insights into the broader issues of gender, work-family balance, and organisational support in law enforcement settings ( Moen, Kelly, & Huang, 2018 ). In line with Lambert et al. (2017) , the outcomes of work-family conflict cannot simply be universalised but contextualised across cultures. Therefore, there is a need for further empirical research on work-family conflict in developing countries ( Karatepe & Badar, 2006 ; Karatepe, Kilic, & Isiksel, 2008 ). Hence, this study seeks to address this gap by investigating the relationship between work-family conflict and satisfaction, including job, and life satisfaction, among female prison officers in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana, and Eastern Region of Ghana. By addressing these gaps, this study seeks to provide insights that can inform organisational policies and evidence-based interventions aimed at supporting the well-being and retention of female prison officers within Ghana’s prison services. In conclusion, this study aims to explore the effect of work-family conflict on the job and life satisfaction of female prison officers based on spillover theory. Thus, this study examined the following research questions:

RQ1. What is the effect of work-family conflict on job satisfaction?

RQ2. What is the effect of work-family conflict on the life satisfaction of female prison officers in Ghana?

2. Literature Review and Hypothesis Development

2.1. Work-Family Conflict (WFC) and Job Satisfaction

The effect of work-family conflict experienced by working mothers affects life stress and depression, with the degree of depression varying according to job satisfaction ( Kim & Lee, 2017 ). Employees experiencing depression may feel that they lack the ability to work effectively. These feelings result in dissatisfaction, leading to absenteeism and low productivity. The concept of work-life conflict gives rise to a meaningful measure of how individuals mentally process their work environment and private life environment, which helps to explain their job satisfaction ( Dorenkamp & Ruhle 2019 ). According to Oliver (2014) , satisfaction is the pleasurable fulfilment of expectations or needs. Job satisfaction can also be defined as, a pleasant or positive emotional state that results from an individual assessment of work or experience ( Chordiya et al., 2019 ; Ratnaningrum et al., 2024 ; Qureshi et al., 2019 ; Baluyos et al., 2019 ; Eliyana & Pradana 2020 ). That is, positive or negative emotions emanate from the evaluation of one’s acceptance of the work done. Job satisfaction has been identified as a vital indicator of employees’ feelings towards their job and a predictor of work behaviour such as motivation, absenteeism, and performance ( Onyemah et al., 2018 ; Afaq & Arshad, 2022 ). According to Abugre (2014) , employees with low levels of job satisfaction may desire to leave their organisation if they are not empowered to vary their job characteristics. According to Lee et al. (2012) , job satisfaction is directly related to employee and overall organisational performance. That is, when an individual evaluates his or her work and feels a sense of happiness, it can lead to higher performance which can result in a sense of happiness at home.

For example, Sousa et al. (2023) study on the moderating effect of work-family conflict in the link between perceived organisational support and job and life satisfaction among Portuguese workers found a significant positive relationship between perceived organisational support and employees’ job and life satisfaction. Again work-family conflict was found to affect the association between perceived organisational support and work-life satisfaction. Also, Dorenkamp and Ruhle (2019) , in their work on work-life conflict, professional commitment, and job satisfaction among academics in Germany, revealed that work-to-life conflict and continuance commitment act as stressors that reduce job satisfaction. Neither life-to-work conflict nor normative commitment had a direct effect on job satisfaction, but their interactions had a positive effect on job satisfaction. Furthermore, in the study of Gabini and Salessi (2019) , on work-family interfase and job performance, using Job satisfaction as mediator revealed that an indirect effects of work-family interfase dimensions (conflict and enrichment) on job performance with job satisfaction being statically significant, which indicated partial mediation. Also, in a study by McDowell, Matthews, Matthews, Aaron, Edmondson, and Ward (2019) , on the topic “the price of success: balancing the effects of entrepreneurial commitment, work-family conflict and emotional exhaustion on job satisfaction” among small and micro firm business owners in United State revealed that being committed to the business and doing what one love is not enough to overcome the negative consequences that come from work-family conflict. The negative influence of emotional exhaustion on job satisfaction was greater than that of entrepreneurial commitment on job satisfaction. Again, Ke, Zhou, and Zhu (2019) in their work on the impact of police work-family conflict on turnover intentions, the Roles of Organisational Support and Job Burnout showed that work-family conflict and job burnout have a significant and positive correlation with turnover intentions. Furthermore, their study showed that job burnout played a partial mediating role in the relationship between work-family conflict and turnover intentions whereas organisational support played a moderating role between work-family conflict and burnout.

Rhee, Park, and Lee (2020) , on the topic “pathways from workplace flexibility to turnover intention: Role of work-family conflict, family-work conflict, and job satisfaction” among low wage workers in South Korea. This study found a significant relationship between workplace flexibility and turnover intention. This indicates that access to less workplace flexibility is associated with higher work-family and family-work conflicts. This implies that Higher work-family conflict decreased job satisfaction, and lower job satisfaction was significantly associated with higher turnover. That is, the mediation effects showed that work-family conflict and job satisfaction were significant mediators of the effect of workplace flexibility on turnover intention. Furthermore, Siswanto, Masyhuri, Hidayati, Ridwan, and Hanif (2022) , in their study on the impact of work-family conflict on job satisfaction and job stress: mediation model from Islamic bank employees in Indonesia. The results showed that work-family conflict was a significant predictor of job satisfaction and job stress. Furthermore, social support mediated the relationship between work-family conflict and job stress. However, organisational commitment was not found to mediate these two variables.

Khan (2022) found that work-family conflict has a significant effect on job satisfaction. In addition, in a study by Cha and Lee (2024) on the impact of work-family conflict on depression among Korean women during the COVID-19 pandemic, the moderated mediating effect of job satisfaction showed that the level of depression varied significantly according to the levels of subjective health status, annual household income, and satisfaction with the husband’s contribution to household chores. Again, the study revealed that depression among Korean working mothers exhibited a positive correlation with work-family conflict and overall life stress and a negative correlation with job satisfaction. Life stress mediates the effect on depression, thereby increasing work-family conflict and decreasing job satisfaction.

Also, a study by Nugroho, Soepatini, Wujoso, and Waskito (2024) , on the Effect of Work-Family Conflict and Job Stress on Performance with the mediation role of Job Satisfaction among nurses in Indonesia found that work-family conflict had a negative and insignificant effect on performance, but work-family conflict had a negative and significant effect on job satisfaction. Work stress also has a negative and insignificant effect on performance and job satisfaction. Work-family conflict was found to have a negative and significant effect on performance which was mediated by job satisfaction; however, work stress had a negative but insignificant effect on performance which was mediated by job satisfaction. In line with these issues, many researchers have demonstrated a significant negative correlation between work-family conflict and job satisfaction. Based on the findings of previous studies, work-family conflict leads to lower job satisfaction. Hence, this study hypothesis that:

H1: Work-family conflict negatively influences job satisfaction of female prison officer.

2.2. Work-Family Conflict (WFC) and Life Satisfaction

The emergence of a heavy workload has disrupted the vital relationship that people have established between work and family and set the stage for the occurrence of work-family conflict ( Yıldırım & Acar, 2018 ). Work plays a significant role in everyone’s lives, just like a family. As pressure on working life increases, conflict becomes inevitable. Hence, life satisfaction results from the satisfaction with many aspects of a person’s life, such as their job and family. Thus, both job and family satisfaction result in life satisfaction ( Afzal & Farooqi, 2014 ). Life satisfaction is related to a person’s understanding of their life being on the right track and being happy with their own life ( Lippman et al., 2011 ). According to Wang and Peng (2017) , life satisfaction is a complete assessment of feelings and attitudes toward an individual’s life at a specific time, ranging from negative to positive. Yıldırım and Acar (2018) defined life satisfaction as the balance and harmony between one’s working and personal lives which serves as the main source of happiness, peace, and satisfaction in general. That is, balance and harmony should determine the quality of family and social relationships, as well as the inner peace of the individual, while increasing work performance. In line with these definitions, life satisfaction can be considered an assessment of one’s total life and happiness with one’s current state of life. According to Michel et al. (2011) , job and family satisfaction are strong predictors of life satisfaction.

For example, in a study by Akram, Bibi, Ashfaq Ahmed, and Kausar (2022) , on work-family conflict and suicidal ideation among physicians in Pakistan, the moderating role of perceived life satisfaction, found that perceived life satisfaction negatively correlates to work-family conflict and suicidal ideation. Physicians with higher levels of perceived life satisfaction had lower levels of work-family conflict and suicidal ideation. Perceived life satisfaction was found to have a negative effect on the link between work-family conflict and suicidal ideation. This indicates that perceived life satisfaction may play a role in decreasing the level of work-family conflict and suicidal ideation among physicians. In addition, in a study by Yucel (2017) on work-to-family conflict and life satisfaction, the moderating role of type of employment. The study found that work-to-family conflict is negatively correlated with life satisfaction, and that this negative correlation is stronger for those who are self-employed. Again, in the study by Yucel and Minnotte (2017) on workplace support and life satisfaction, the mediating roles of work-to-family conflict and mental health. Their results showed that work-to-family conflict fully mediated the effect of organisational support on life satisfaction and partially mediated the effect of supervisor support on life satisfaction. Moreover, poor mental health fully mediates the effects of both organisational and supervisor support on life satisfaction. However, coworker support did not mediate either of these variables.

Wang and Peng (2017) examined the mediating effects of job satisfaction and life satisfaction on the relationship between work-family conflict and depression in professional women. The results showed a positive relationship between work-to-family conflict and depression in professional women. In other words, professional women with higher WFC levels were more likely to have higher levels of depression. On the other hand, life and job satisfaction were found to partially mediate the effects of work-family conflict and depression. Furthermore, Qiu and Fan (2015) examined family boundary characteristics, work-family conflict, and life satisfaction using a moderated mediation model. The results showed that employees’ family flexibility was negatively related to their perceived work interference with work-family conflict (WIF) and family-work conflict, and that work-family conflict mediated the relationship between family flexibility and life satisfaction; the indirect effect of family flexibility on life satisfaction via work-family conflict was found to be stronger for individuals with higher family permeability.

In addition, Yıldırım and Acar (2018) studied the influence of work-family conflict on organisational cynicism and the mediating role of life satisfaction. Their study revealed that work-family conflict had a significant positive effect on life satisfaction. In other words, the life satisfaction of employees with family problems due to their work decreases. The study results showed that work-family conflict had a significant influence on organisational cynicism. Zhao, Qu, and Ghiselli (2011) examined the relationship between work-family conflict and job and life satisfaction among hotel sales managers and found that family-work conflict is negatively linked with life satisfaction. Again, the study found that work-family conflict and family-work conflict have significant negative correlations with an individual’s affective reaction to one’s job, and affective reaction, rather than cognitive appraisal, had a significant positive correlation with life satisfaction.

From the studies highlighted above, the positive and negative experiences of individuals can be the source of overall life satisfaction as well as the determination of their inner peace and happiness. Many researchers have demonstrated a significantly negative correlation between work-family conflict and life satisfaction. Based on the findings of previous studies, work-family conflict leads to lower life satisfaction. Therefore, the study proposes the following hypothesis:

H2: Work-family conflict has a negative correlation with life satisfaction.

2.3. Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework that explains how the constructs in this study interact with one another is shown in Figure 1 .

Figure 1

Figure 1. Conceptual model.

3. Research Method

3.1. Study Design/Sampling/Population and Sample Size

This study adopts a quantitative research approach with an explanatory and descriptive design. This study aimed to determine the effect of work-family conflict on the job and life satisfaction of female prison officers in Ghana. The study sample was selected via purposive and convenience sampling techniques for questionnaire distribution owing to the operational nature of the service personnel. The purpose of using the purposive sampling technique is to allow the researcher to use the researcher’s own judgment regarding the selection of the region ( Cochran, 1977 ). The total population for this study was 6821, with an estimated sample size of 378, based on Miller and Brewer’s (2003) sample selection formula.

$n=N/\left[1+N{\left(\alpha \right)}^2\right]$

where,

N = total population = 6,821;

n = sample size and;

α = significance level = 0.05.

$n=6821/\left[1+6821{\left(0.05\right)}^2\right]$

Therefore n = 377.84; hence acceptable size 378.

3.2. Research Instrument

The study questionnaire was an adapted standard structured instrument that had already been validated in previous studies. The questionnaire was organised into three key sections. Section A comprised questions designed to collect demographic information from the respondents. Section B contains questions measuring work-family conflict, and Section C includes questions on job and life satisfaction. Out of the 400 self-administered questionnaires, 311 were returned for data analysis, resulting in a response rate of 77.75%.

Work-family conflict was measured using a scale developed by Netemeyer et al. (1996) . The scale consisted of ten (10) items. The first five (5) items measured work-to-family conflict. A sample item is “the demands of my work interfere with my home and family life”. The last five (5) items on the scale measured family-to-work conflict. A sample item is “The demands of my family or spouse/partner interfere with work-related activities. Respondents were required to respond on a seven (7) point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Responses are scored from 1 to 7 (1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Moderately Disagree, 3 = disagree, 4 = neutral, 5 = agree, 6 = Moderately Agree, and 7 = Strongly Agree). It is reported by Shukri, Jones, & Conner (2017) to have a reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha) of 0.90 for WFC and 0.91 for FWC.

Job Satisfaction was measured using an abbreviated 9-item version of the Index of Satisfaction, originally developed by Brayfield and Rothe (1951) . The items were measured on a seven (7) point Likert Scale ranging from 1 to 7 (1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Slightly Disagree, 3 = disagree, 4 = neutral, 5 = agree, 6 = Slightly Agree, 7 = Strongly Agree). It has been reported to have a Cronbach’s alpha of .90 ( Lee et al., 2012 ). Sample items are “I consider my job pleasant” and “Most days, I am enthusiastic about my work”. However, by way of making the items more understandable to the respondents for the present study, the word “enthusiastic” in this item was changed to “excited”.

Life Satisfaction was also measured using a scale developed by Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin (1985) . The scale has 5-item measured on a seven (7) point Likert Scale ranging from 1 to 7 (1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Slightly Disagree, 3 = disagree, 4 = neutral, 5 = agree, 6 = Slightly Agree, and 7 = Strongly Agree). Sample items are “So far I have gotten the important things I want in my life” and “In most ways, my life is close to ideal”. Hofmann et al. (2014) as 0.87.

4. Data Analysis and Results

Data were analysed through (SPSS) version 21. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the data. Several inferential statistical analyses were conducted. Partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) were employed to test the hypotheses, and the regression confirmed the SEM results. Subsequently, A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed to determine the goodness of fit of the total measurement model.

4.1. Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Age, gender, number of children, marital status, position, qualifications, years of service with the current company, and type of job were among the demographics of the respondents. The results of the respondents’ demographic profiles are displayed in Table 1 .

Table 1

Table 1. Profile of the research participants.

Detail	Frequency	Percent (%)
Age
20 - 29	57	18.3
30 - 39	115	37.0
40 - 49	82	26.4
50 - 59	49	15.8
60+	8	2.6
Academic Qualification
SSSCE/WASSCE	116	37.2
Diploma	45	14.5
First Degree	97	31
Postgraduate	31	10.1
Professional	22	7.2
Rank
Subordinate	270	86.8
Superior	41	13.2
Years of Employment
1 - 5	58	18.6
6 - 10	78	25.1
11 - 15	65	20.9
16 - 20	50	16.1
21 - 25	30	9.65
26 - 30	30	9.65
Marital Status
Single	126	40.5
Married	185	59.5
Number of Children
None	56	18
One	73	23.5
More than one	182	58.5

Sample size (N) = 311 Source: Field Data, 2024.

Of the total respondents, 311 (18.3%) were between the ages of 20 - 29 and the majority (37%) were 30 - 39 years. Of these, 26.4% and 15.8% were between the ages of 40 - 49 and 50 - 59 years respectively. However, only 2.6% of the participants were 60 years. In terms of academic qualifications, 37.2% had SSSCE/WASSCE, representing the majority, 14.5% had a diploma, 31% had first-degree holders, and 10.1% had a Postgraduate Degree. Only 22 (7.2%) respondents had professional certificates

4.2. Measurement Issues

Convergent validity was determined by an Average Value Extracted (AVE), in which a value of at least 0.5 indicated sufficient convergent validity. The average variance extracted (AVE) of all latent constructs was greater than the recommended cut-off point of 0.50 ( Fornell & Larcker, 1981 ). This indicated adequate convergent validity, suggesting that the constructs which were supposed to be related were. Discriminant validity was also examined by ensuring that the AVE of each latent variable was greater than the squared correlations with all the other latent variables. This indicates that the constructs had sufficient discriminant validity. This also means that constructs which are not supposed to be related are unrelated as shown in Table 2 below.

Table 2

Table 2. Validity and Reliability Analyses for (CFA) measurement model.

Variables	Cronbach’s	CR	AVE
Work-Family Conflict	0.830	0.902	0.651
Job Satisfaction	0.757	0.601	0.533
Life Satisfaction	0.750	0.802	0.585

Source: Field Data, 2024.

The Fornell and Larcker test was used to assess discriminant validity. According to Fornell and Larcker (1981) , the square root of AVE should exceed 0.5. When a concept has discriminant validity, it describes a distinct phenomenon that is not mirrored by another construct in the model ( Hair et al., 2017 ). Discriminant validity assesses how different one construct is from another. The results reported in Table 3 reveal that the control and latent variables in this study are unique from each other, since each recorded a value larger than 0.5.

Table 3

Table 3. Fornell-Larcker procedure for discriminant validity.

Variables	1	2	3
Work-Family Conflict	0.521
Job Satisfaction	0.453	0.807
Life Satisfaction	−0.239	−0.080	0.765

Source: Field Data, 2024.

Table 4 shows that the factor loadings of all individual items, as presented in Table 4 below, were significant (p < 0.01), and their factor loadings were above 0.5. with the exception of JS9 which is less than 0.5.

Table 4

Table 4. Factor loadings for (CFA) measurement model.

Variables	Indicators	Loading	T-value
Work-Family Conflict	WFC1	0.879***	8.231
	WFC2	0.766***	7.139
	WFC3	0.904***	10.783
	WFC4	0.781***	6.559
	WFC5	0.683
Job Satisfaction	JS4	0.589***	4.862
	JS9	0.443
Life Satisfaction	LS2	0.941***	8.070
	LS3	0.741***	4.331
	LS4	0.566

Table 5 shows the correlation matrix representing the linear relationships between the variables under study. The results show a relationship between work-family conflict (WFC) and job satisfaction (JS). The results showed that work-family conflict (WFC) has a significant positive relationship (r = 0.273, p < 0.01) with job satisfaction. On the other hand, life satisfaction (LS) showed a negative relationship with WFC (r = −0.089). In addition, demographic variables, such as age, academic qualification, number of years in service, and number of children, had significant and positive relationships with WFC (r = 0.015, p < 0.01); (r = 0. 121, p < 0.05), (r = 0. 126, p < 0.05) and (r = 0. 203, p < 0.01), respectively.

Table 5

Table 5. Pearson’s correlation matrix of the study’s variables.

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
1. JS	−0.104
2. LS	0.273**	1
3. WFC	−0.043	−0.089	1
4. Age	0.058	0.022	0.0158**	1
5. Qual	−0.058	−0.048	0.121*	0.600**	1
6. Rank	−0.029	0.025	0.077	0.371**	0.220**	1
7. Years in Serv	0.027	−0.012	0.126*	0.798**	540*	0.277**	1
8. Marital Status	0.023	0.029	0.064	0.492**	0.224**	0.218**	0.485	1
9. Num of Child	−0.104	0.064	0.203**	0.455**	0.300*	0.111	0.445**	360**	1

Source: Field Data (2024). **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Table 6 presents the goodness-of-fit of the constructs. The structural model was validated by using various fit indices. The cutoff criteria required by the model were met, signifying that the model fits the data. The model showed a sufficient fit, consistent with the thresholds recommended by Hu and Bentler (1999) and Hair et al., 2010 . The Chi-square for degrees of freedom CMIN/df for the study model was 1.621. This is within the threshold range of 1 - 3, as suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999) . The Comparative Fit Index (CFI) was 0.985, which met the cutoff points recommended by Schreiber et al. (2006) . The Root Mean Square Error Approximation (RMSEA) of the model for this study was 0.042 which is excellent according to the recommended cutoff point (<0.06) suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999) and Hair et al., 2010 . The Pclose (0.082), Standardised Root Mean Square of Residuals (SRMR) (0.056), goodness-of-fit index (GFI) (0.954), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) (0.954), Incremental Fit Index (IFI) (0.958), and Adjusted Goodness-of-fit (AGFI) (0.944) also met the cutoff points recommended by Hu and Bentler (1999) . All these values, as shown in Table 6 , indicate that the hypothesised model fits the data.

Table 6

Table 6. Goodness-of-fit indices for a structural model.

Measurement	Estimate	Threshold	Interpretation
CMIN/df	1.621	Between 1 and 3	Excellent
C.F.I.	0.985	≥0.95	Excellent
G.F.I.	0.954	≥0.95	Excellent
RMSEA	0.042	<0.06	Excellent
PClose	0.082	>0.05	Excellent
AGFI	0.944	≥ 0.90	Excellent
SRMR	0.056	<0.08	Excellent
TLI	0.954	>0.95	Acceptable
IFI	0.958	>0.95	Excellent

4.3. Test of Hypothesised Relationship

Table 7 shows the summary results of the test of hypothesis of the study. Based on the results of the hypothesis test, the value of R² = 0.050 suggests that work-family conflict explains 5% of the variance in job satisfaction among female prison officers. While this value indicates that a relationship exists, it also suggests that other factors may contribute to job satisfaction that are not accounted for in this model. The correlation coefficient (r = 0.273) indicates a small to moderate positive relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction. Since the p-value is 0.000 (less than 0.05), this correlation is statistically significant, which implies that as work-family conflict increases, job satisfaction also tends to increase. The beta value (β = 0.311) further supports the positive relationship indicated by the correlation. This suggests that a one-unit increase in work-family conflict is associated with a 0.311 increase in job satisfaction. A statistically significant p-value (0.000) indicated that this relationship was highly reliable. The hypothesis that work-family conflict negatively influences job satisfaction is not supported by the findings of this study. Despite the expectation that work-family conflict might negatively impact job satisfaction, the results suggest a statistically significant positive relationship.

Furthermore, in line with hypothesis 2, which was the hypothesis that work-family conflict has a negative correlation with life satisfaction from the test result, the correlation coefficient (r = 0.089) suggests a very weak positive correlation between work-family conflict and life satisfaction. A p-value of 0.119 indicated that this correlation was not statistically significant. This implies that we do not have sufficient evidence to conclude that work-family conflict is meaningfully related to life satisfaction. However, (r² = 0.0123) (or approximately 1.23%) suggests that only about 1.23% of the variance in life satisfaction can be explained by work-family conflict in this model. This further supports the notion that work-family conflict has a minimal impact on life satisfaction. While the Beta Estimate (beta = −0.122) suggests a negative relationship if work-family conflict increases, life satisfaction is expected to decrease. However, the (p = 0.029) indicates that this relationship is statistically significant, suggesting that there is a meaningful association, even though the actual correlation showed a weak association. In conclusion, while the Pearson correlation indicates a weak and insignificant relationship between work and family conflict and life satisfaction, the beta estimate suggests a significant negative relationship. Therefore hypothesis two is supported as shown in Table 7 .

Table 7

Table 7. Summary of result/test of hypothesised relationship.

Path Model Relationship	Estimates	S.E.	CR	P	Decision
ZWFC---->ZJS	0.311	0.054	5.767	0.000	not supported
ZWFC---->ZLS	−0.122	0.056	−2.179	0.029	supported

Source: Field Data (2024). WFC = Work-Family Conflict; JS = Job Satisfaction; LS = Life Satisfaction; and Z = Z scores for the variables.

5. Discussion

Drawing on spillover theory, we examined the effect of work-family conflict on the job and life satisfaction of female prison officers. This study was conducted in two regions of Ghana: The Greater Accra and the Eastern Region. This study uses spillover theory to explain the relationship between the study constructs. The study had two hypothesis states and, based on Hypothesis 1, H₁: work-family conflict will negatively influence job satisfaction. The study proposed that work-family conflict would negatively influence job satisfaction, and the expectation was that the level of influence would be very significant. The results of the hypothesis test reveal an intriguing relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction among female prison officers. The R² value of 0.050 indicates that work-family conflict accounts for only 5% of the variance in job satisfaction, suggesting that there are likely other factors influencing job satisfaction that are not captured in this analysis. The correlation coefficient (r = 0.273) demonstrates a small to moderate positive relationship, indicating that as work-family conflict increases, job satisfaction also tends to increase. This finding is somewhat unexpected, as one might typically anticipate that work-family conflict would negatively affect job satisfaction. However, the statistically significant p-value of 0.000 confirms that the observed correlation is reliable and non-random. Moreover, the beta value (β = 0.311) indicates that for every one-unit increase in work-family conflict, job satisfaction increases by approximately 0.311 units. This result reinforces the idea of a positive relationship between the two variables. This finding is consistent with the findings of Aleksic et al. (2017) , who investigated the effect of work-family balance on job satisfaction and found a positive correlation. In addition, the findings are supported by Raza et al. (2018) , who also found a positive relationship between work-family balance and job satisfaction. Furthermore, Asbari, Purwanto, Sudargini, and Fahmi (2020) , in their also revealed that work-family conflict has a positive and significant effect on job satisfaction.

However, the findings are in contrast with the majority of work-family conflict studies which revealed a negative association between WFC and job satisfaction (e.g., Baral, 2016 ; Dartey-Baah, 2015 ). Likewise, Afzal and Farooqi (2014) found that WFC and FWC have significant negative relationships with job satisfaction. Job satisfaction was also found to be negatively related to work-family conflict ( Asbari, Purwanto, Sudargini, & Fahmi, 2020 ; Arıbaş & Özşahin, 2021 ; Li et al., 2021 ; Khan, 2022 ; Nugroho et al., 2024 ). Further, based on the information provided, the R² value of 0.050 indicates that work-family conflict explains only 5% of the variance in job satisfaction, which is quite low. This suggests that work-family conflict is not a strong predictor of job satisfaction and that other factors may play a more significant role, such as contextual factors. Perhaps in this particular context, job demands lead to greater appreciation for both work and family roles, promoting job satisfaction despite conflicts. Another factor may be role enrichment; work-family conflict could lead to role enrichment, where challenges faced at work might provide a sense of achievement and enhance overall job satisfaction, especially if the job is viewed as critically important, and the work environment itself may foster job satisfaction despite conflicts, such as strong workplace relationships or a commitment to the values of the role.

Another salient reason why work-family conflict has a significant positive relationship with job satisfaction may be the shift system run by the Ghana prison service. Officers get the opportunity to schedule family activities to fit into their off days at work. This confirms a comparative study conducted by Stone, Kemp, Rix, and Weldon (1993) , who investigated the relationship between job satisfaction and the shift system in the police service of two different forces: Ottawa forces and regulation forces. The Ottawa forces started running the shift system, while regulatory forces were still using the traditional system. The results of this study indicate that Ottawa officers experienced a significant increase in their job satisfaction due to the introduction of the shift system. However, regulatory officers who were not running the shift system expressed a decrease in their satisfaction.

In line with hypothesis H₂, Work-family conflict will negatively influence life satisfaction. This study found a negative correlation between work-family conflict and life satisfaction. This result is consistent with the findings of Afzal and Farooqi (2014) , who investigated the impact of work-family conflict and family-work conflict on job satisfaction and life satisfaction and discovered that there is a negative relationship between life satisfaction and work-family conflict. Furthermore, the study by Zhang, Rasheed, and Luqman (2020) , on work-family conflict and turnover intentions among Chinese nurses: The combined role of job and life satisfaction and perceived supervisor revealed a negative correlation between work-family conflict and life satisfaction. These findings support those of the current study. Their study revealed that when heavy work demands (i.e., high work overload and tough work schedules) interfere with the performance of the family role, nurses may be less satisfied, which in turn leads to nurses intending to quit their current jobs. In addition, other scholars have found a negative relationship between work-family conflict and life satisfaction such as ( Qiu & Fan, 2015 ; Yucel, 2017 ; Wang & Peng, 2017 ; Bai, Gopalan, Beutell, & Ren, 2021 ; Li et al., 2021 ). All these studies found a negative relationship between work-family conflict and life satisfaction. Therefore, in line with these studies, female prison officers experience a decrease in life satisfaction as work-family conflict increases. This suggests that one of the most crucial factors in the contented existence of female prison officials is their family’s contentment. Work-related issues likely impact a person’s emotional and psychological well-being, and while they may experience job satisfaction because of support from superiors or colleagues, their personal life satisfaction may not align with their job satisfaction. Future research could investigate whether factors such as age, rank, and marital status have differential impacts on female jail officials’ job and life satisfaction. Further research is needed to investigate other elements that may contribute to female prison officers’ job satisfaction as well as the complexities in the relationship highlighted by these findings.

6. Conclusion

There has been much research on work-family conflict, much from Asia, the United States, and Europe, with relatively little research in sub-Saharan Africa. Empirical data from sub-Saharan Africa expand our knowledge of the research concept, since work-family conflict is significantly influenced by cultural dynamics. This study empirically examines the impact of work-family conflict on the life and job satisfaction of female Ghanaian prison officers. The theoretical and empirical literature on work-family conflict was enhanced in this study. In line with the investigated hypothesis, work-family conflict has a negative relationship with life satisfaction but a positive correlation with job satisfaction, which was confirmed by this study. The results of this study strongly suggest that senior officers and superiors in security agencies should strive to create a supportive work environment in which direct supervisors can assist juniors with work-family conflict issues. Second, training should be provided to all officers on improving copying and managerial techniques to cope with the negative impact of work-family conflict on their jobs and lives.

Limitations and Direction for Future Research

Despite its contributions, this study had few limitations. First, the study was conducted at two prison service command centres in Ghana. However, these results may vary across countries. Future research should involve significant regional command centres around the country to obtain more generalised conclusions. This study employed a cross-sectional research design using a self-reported closed-ended questionnaire. Therefore, it is possible that changes in employee behaviour over time go unnoticed. In addition, a respondent’s capacity to express their opinions is typically restricted when employing closed-ended questions. Consequently, future research should employ a longitudinal and mixed-method design to fully comprehend this subject. Furthermore, while the study used a sample size of 311, which is adequate for quantitative studies ( Rahi, 2017 ), it is therefore recommended that future studies use a larger sample size to improve the accuracy of the findings. Again, the study employed a convenience sampling technique, which meant that only respondents who were within station centres and could be easily reached were included in the sample. Thus, future studies should use a stratified random sampling technique to provide proportionate representation of each regional command to achieve more generalised results. Finally, as this study included only female prison officers, future studies should consider including male officers to provide more balanced results. Future studies should thus attempt to investigate the relationships among job satisfaction, family satisfaction, life satisfaction, and work-family and family-work conflicts within other security agencies. Despite these limitations, this study made a significant contribution to the work-family conflict literature in the sub-Saharan context, specifically Ghana. The findings of this study showed that WFC is positively related to job satisfaction, adding up to other scholars who have found a positive significant relationship, in contrast to the majority of authors who have found a negative relationship.

NOTES

*Leading author.

^#Corresponding author.

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