Assessing Association between Constructs of Time Management and Quality of Learning among Employed Students of Higher Educational Institutes

This study has examined the extent to which effective time management could result in improved quality of learning among employed university students. Based on quantitative research design, convenient sampling approach is followed. The questionnaire, consisting of a Time Management Behvaior Scale (TMBS) was used to gather data from employed university students. 315 responses were received, and analysed through SPSS (21.0 versions). Findings have yielded that effective time management could result in improved quality of learning among employed university students (r = 0.114) (p ≤ 0.98). However, this relationship has been found to be statistically insignificant. Results of the study will help students to understand the relationship between time management and improved quality of learning in academics. Being informed of this association, university students should manage their use and learn to improve performance of students in academics, while getting insights into professional life as well. Recommendations to use longitudinal studies, conducted on samples of different cities and even regions of Pakistan in the future.

• Time Management
• Quality of Learning
• Academic Achievement
• Government and Non-Government University
• Employed Students

1. Introduction

Multi-tasking has its own positive and negative effect on an individual, especially for a working student. These things do not come easy as students have to manage time for studies, families, work, and many more responsibilities at the same time. Time management skills are significant for university students as they impact students’ learning and outcomes by enabling them to manage time effectively to produce a maximum outcome. It develops the best strategies for students to lead a successful life by striking a balance between exercise, sleep, appropriate diet, work, family, friends, and studies. So, it proves that there is an important relationship between time management and student’s academic outcomes. Thus, this study wishes to explore the relationship among time management and quality of learning of employed graduate students in universities.

1.1. Statement of the Problem

Time management is the key to success. However, students employing as to meet their both ends meet, fail to lag behind effective time management techniques to excel in their academics with quality of learning effectively. Therefore, this study aims to aware students about the significance of time management in achieving and improving quality of learning, ultimately, surpassing in their academics.

1.2. Purpose of the Study

The motive behind initiating the project lies in assessing association between time management and quality of learning among employed students in higher educational institutes.

1.3. Research Objective

The underlying objective of this project is as below:

RO1: To examine the extent to which effective time management could result in improved quality of learning among employed university students.

1.4. Research Hypotheses

The fundamental research hypotheses of this project are as below:

H1: Effective Time Management (TM) has a significant impact on the Quality of Learning (QOL) among students enrolled in a university education.

H1_o: Effective Time Management (TM) has not a significant impact on the Quality of Learning (QOL) among students enrolled in a university education.

Definition of Key Terms

Quality learning is explained as the learning activities that may either carry out in real-world contexts or have a high transfer to the actual-world setting. Authentic learning is part of both personal and cultural relevance ( Steinmayr et al., 2019 ). Personal relevance describes how learners can connect new information they learn outside the classroom and their theories about the external world. Quality learning also reflects how well the learning opportunities are available to students to get thorough knowledge. It teaches them problem-solving skills, relevant work skills, and good interpersonal skills ( Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989: p. 34 ). In addition, quality learning is what students gain in the present, which can benefit them in the future ( Meyers & Nulty, 2009 ).

Time management is described as “a form of decision making that individual use to structure, protect and adapt their time to certain conditions”. It further categorizes in three essential components including structuring, protecting, and adapting time ( Aeon et al., 2021 ).

2.1. Time Management

Time management is defined as a cluster of behavioral skills that play an essential role in the organization of the study ( Lay & Schouwenburg, 1993 ). Ling, Heffernan, & Muncer (2003) discovered that perceived poor time management has a relation with adverse examination outcomes, such as a poor quality of learning among graduates. Moreover, the study showed a clear association between student performance and the ability to manage time effectively.

Effective time management has an innate association with more excellent academic performance and lower anxiety levels among students. Students typically find it hard to balance their studies and daily routine activities. The study examined the time management behaviors of undergraduate engineering students. The survey was conducted through correlation analysis, regression analysis, and model reduction that settled on time management skills among students. The results revealed students’ perceived control of time-correlated with cumulative grade point average. Further, time management behavior was found across age, gender, entry qualification, and time ( Adams & Blair, 2019 ).

The study reveals that academic skills enhance critical thinking and improve educational frameworks through feedback, teaching, and access to high-quality resources. One of the worthiest skills is: good time management skills shield against stress ( Misra & McKean, 2000 ), moreover, time management skill plays a key role in higher performance and lower stress and anxiety.

Sevari and Kandy (2011) conducted research that represents the effect of time management skills on self-reliance, and quality of learning was determined on students. The results showed it was influential to train for making time management skills better to attain better academic achievement. A study conducted by Broadbent & Poon (2015) has revealed the connection between internal management skill and educational performance among university students in the engineering field in Africa. The results explored there is a significant positive relationship between time management skills and quality of learning, especially, academic achievement.

2.2. Quality of Learning

The study about “Study Methods for Improving Quality Learning and Performance in Higher Education”, identified quality learning from the perspective of learning as a system. The research took place to clarify the inequality and confusion of the learning quality concept. The research has used “grounded theory” method in Universities Negeri Yogyakarta. Data analysis techniques showed as inductive and introduced three concepts: ( Charkhabi et al., 2013 ).

The concept of “quality of learning” is related differently to everyone’s interest in learning activities. Everyone is interested in getting a learning service that is qualified. Quality of learning explains in numerous aspects. It may measure by the success of learning activities, quality of learning in the academic unit, quality of education associated with environmental items. Tanrıöğen and Iscan (2009) examined Pamukkale University students’ time dealing behavior and skills level and how these qualities affect their academic achievement. According to new research ( Alsalem et al., 2017 ), the study findings suggested that most university students have run out of time dealing skills.

Albena conducted another study to determine the relationship between the time management skills of Health Services students and their academic achievement. The study revealed a positive connection between stress and attaining academic outcome. Moreover, the research suggests that time management skills can be improved by acknowledging about behavior and forethought, and thought processes ( Eilam & Aharon, 2003 ). Moreover, the study proposed by ( Alay, 2000 ) on university students, it is examined that there is a significant positive correlation lies among educational attainment, forethought of time, and self-time management. The study found no theoretical correlation between time attitudes and academic achievement. A strong relation is seen between time management and skills and academic achievement. Moreover, the study found that girls are more victorious compared with male students in time management and time planning ( Alay, 2000 ).

In further study presented on the Marmara University Vocational School of Technical Sciences students, it analyzed that there exists a positive association between distressful condition and educational performance. However, girls were exposed to superior time management skills ( Aslan et al., 2020 ). Moreover, a further study on 438 teachers identified that different departments and disciplines showed a positive correlation between stress level and academic performance. Furthermore, the study found no interaction between time consuming behavior and academic attainment. Relating with the study mentioned above, the research presented the same findings that female teachers are more go-to-go than males. The study revealed a notable relation within “educational grade competition average” and “time management scores” among teachers. However, female teachers were prone to more success on time dealing skill and planning time successfully. In addition to that, in terms of coping with time wasters, female teachers were more worth considering than males ( Klassen & Chiu, 2010 ). Overall results presented by the Boards of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education in Pakistan explored that most students fail secondary examinations. The remaining number of students passes with less than 50 percent.

Besides, parental involvement also drives promising results in Kids’ School-Based Learning Activities. These activities may include communicating and keeping contact with teachers, being up-to-date on the kids’ attendance at school, and monitoring their activities constantly. Moreover, it may encompass checking periodical academic progress reports as well. All these things play a vital role in helping your children achieve higher grades. Some parents are more optimistic about the about studying chances that mid school offers. When children jump to middle level from the secondary school phase, so parents’ expectations get so higher. So, secondary school level is more concerned because parents become apprehensive about teens’ future and opportunities to grow potentially ( Catsambis & Garland, 1997 ).

Over to another perspective now, for practical time management skills that lead to higher academic performance and minimize stress levels. College-level students face difficulty in maintaining equilibrium between school life and individual societal life. The study inspected self-perceptions of undergraduate students’ time management behavior. The study used Time Management Behavior Scale (TMBS) ( Macan, Shahani, Dipboye, & Phillips, 1990 ). The measure was made of 34 score items that accessed range from often right to rarely right. The population was undergraduate students from the 2018-19 session from the public sector university at Malakand division. Students acquired CGPA was also accessed from the previous semester.

Evocative and inferential statistics were consumed to examine the data in this study. The results displayed that pupil had modest to high levels of time controlling skills. There was a substantial association between undergraduate students and time managing behavior as well as academic performance. The study further suggested enhancing their time management skills by providing them seminars and workshops to give rise to their time management skills. The study further concluded that students had below-average time management skills. It was accessed that students faced difficulty with deciding their educational goals and priorities. Moreover, they faced problems scheduling time for multiple tasks, having a well-organized workplace, preparing tasks lists, controlling time management, and unable to accomplish tasks on time ( Rashid et al., 2020 ).

Balduf (2009) expressed that poor timer management causes a lack of academic achievement. Britton and Tektas et al. (2010) revealed that good time administration is prone to create higher educational achievement. Moreover, they explored that 67% of the undergraduate students attended time management as the most significant problem.

3. Research Methodology

3.1. Research Design

A quantitative research method is used as to explore the association between time management and quality of learning in employed university students. The significance behind its application lies in providing stats and figures, numeric evidence of exploring study’s construct association ( Muijs, 2010 ).

3.2. Population

The suitable population for the study constitutes of students in both government and non-government higher educational institutes, employed, and living in Lahore.

3.3. Sample

The sampling technique used was convenient sampling. This technique allows gathering of the data from the suitable target population conveniently within time and cost effectiveness ( Etikan, Musa, & Alkassim, 2016 ). 500 questionnaires were distributed among students of Government College and University of Lahore (GCU), Superior University, Punjab University, University of Education, University of Management and Technology, and University of Lahore. The sample size was 500. However, only 315 responses were received. The response rate was 63%, which is god enough to proceed.

3.4. Instrument

A scale “The Time Management Behavioral Scale (TMBS)” was developed by Macan et al. (1990) to determine to what extent people use these skills and techniques in their work place. In this research survey, respondents rate the degree to which each item is true for them on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 to 5. A higher score on the survey indicates higher sense of time management skills.

3.5. Reliability Statistics of Time Management

Cronbach’s Alpha	N of items
0.861	29

The table above shows the reliability of time management behavior scale and shows a reliability of 0.86.

3.6. Timeline and Procedure

The first phase was started for testing pilot study and survey was collected online by creating google forms and consisted of students from Public and Private universities, The first phase was completed in 10 days. The second phase was started after completing first phase of pilot testing and checking the reliability. The data were collected within a month and the whole process of data collection was completed in one and half month.

3.7. Data Analysis

After gathering 315 responses in a soft form, via google docs, the responses were then coded and inserted into “MS Excel”. The excel sheets were then used in Statistical packages of Social Sciences (SPSS) (21.0 Version) as to run analysis, and explore the relationship among study’s constructs. The analysis is conducted in three main parts. In the first part demographics of the respondents, gender was analysed. In the second part descriptive and inferential statistics were obtained. In the last part, correlation between variables was carried out.

3.8. Research Ethics

Primary data’s research ethics were given utmost concern while gathering data for the project. Respondents were asked to provide data without force or greed. Name of respondents were kept confidential. No personal information was obtained from respondents.

4. Data Analysis

This study examines the extent to which effective time management could result in improved quality of learning among employed university students of both government and non-government institutes. A one scale questionnaire, comprised of Time Management Behavior Scale was used to collect data and the data was analysed via SPSS (21.0 version). Following are the results of the analysis,

4.1. Descriptive Demographics

Table 1 as below has provided that 75% of the females and 25% of the males participated as respondents in the study.

Table 1

Table 1. Respondent’s gender.

Gender of the Respondents	N	%
Female	236	75
Male	79	25
Total	315	100

Table 2 as below has provided that 7% of the participants were PhD, 20% were Mphil scholars, 13% were Master’s students, and 60% of the participants were bachelor students. Highest number of respondents falls in the category of the bachelors.

Table 2

Table 2. Respondent’s qualification.

Program	F	%
PhD	22	7
M. phil	63	20
Master’s	41	13
BS	189	60
Total	315	100

Table 3 as below has provided that 40% of the participants were from non-government and 60% of the participants were from government higher educational institutes. Highest number of respondents falls in the category of the government higher educational institutes.

Table 3

Table 3. Respondent’s institutes.

Type of Institutes	N	%
Non-Government	126	40
Government	189	60
Total	315	100

Table 4 as below has provided that 44.7% respondents were obtained 3.6 - 4.0 grades, 40.6% of the participants were obtained 3.0 - 3.5 grades, 14% participants were obtained 2.6 - 2.9 grades, and only 0.6% respondents were obtained 2.0% - 2.5% grades. Highest number of respondents falls in the category of 3.6 - 4.0 grades.

Table 4

Table 4. Respondent’s grades.

Grades Obtained	N	%
2.0 - 2.5	2	0.6
2.6 - 2.9	44	14.0
3.0 - 3.5	128	40.6
3.6 - 4.0	141	44.7
Total	315	100

Table 5 as below has provided that 35% respondents were full time and 65% were part time employed. Highest number of respondent’s falls in the category of part time employed.

Table 5

Table 5. Respondent’s type of job.

Work Type	F	%
Part time	205	65%
Full time	110	35%
Total	315	100%

Table 6 as below has provided that 40% respondents have less than 1 year experience, 35% of the participants have 1 to 3 year experience, 18% participants have 3 to 5 year experience, and only 7% respondents have more than 5year experience. Highest number of respondents falls in the category of less than 1 year experience.

Table 6

Table 6. Respondent’s job experience.

Job Experience	F	%
Less than 1 year	126	40
1 - 3 years	110	35
3 - 5 years	57	18
More than 5 years	22	07
Total	315	100

4.2. Descriptive Analysis

The descriptive analysis of the Time Management Behavior Scale (TMBS) is as follows Table 7 :

Table 7

Table 7. Mean & Standard deviations of statements of time management behavior scale.

Statements	M	SD
I finish top priority tasks before going on to less important ones.	4.23	0.85
I break difficult task into smaller manageable parts.	4.17	0.82
I look for ways to increase the efficiency with which I perform my activities.	4.14	0.87
I set deadlines for myself when I set out to accomplish a task.	4.09	0.93
I review my goals to determine if they need revision.	4.01	0.99
When I decide on what I will try to accomplish in the short term, I keep in mind my long-term objectives.	3.95	0.97
I set short-term goals for what I want to accomplish in a few days or weeks.	3.92	0.99
When I find that I am frequently contacting someone, I record that person’s name, address, and phone number.	3.81	1.12
I set priorities to determine the order in which I will perform tasks each day.	3.80	1.02
I write notes to remind myself of what I need to do.	3.74	1.16
I carry a notebook to jot down notes and ideas.	3.65	1.26
I review my daily activities to see where I am wasting time.	3.64	1.11
During a day, I evaluate how well I am following the schedule I have set down for myself.	3.63	1.13
I make a list of things to do each day and check off each task as it is completed.	3.58	1.30
I become overly involved in small details.	3.57	1.10
When asked to take on additional tasks, I am unable to say no.	3.45	1.13
I schedule activities at least a week in advance.	3.40	1.20
I tend to take on too many tasks at one time.	3.35	1.04
I feel in control of my time.	3.31	1.04
My workdays are too unpredictable for me to plan and manage my time to any great extent.	3.24	1.14
I underestimate the time that it will take me to accomplish tasks.	3.17	1.22
I keep a duly log of my activities.	3.15	1.19
I become overwhelmed by tasks that are trivial.	3.05	1.06
I can find the things I need more easily when my workplace is messy than when it is neat and organized.	3.03	1.27
I carry an appointment book with me.	3.01	1.29
When I am somewhat disorganized, I am better able to adjust to unexpected events.	2.96	1.20
I have some of my most creative ideas when I am disorganized.	2.95	1.28
I find it difficult to keep a schedule because others take me away from my work.	2.90	1.18
I must spend a lot of time on unimportant tasks.	2.72	1.26

Table 7 shows that majority of the working students agree that they finish their top priority task before they go on to the less important tasks (M = 4.23, SD = 0.85), majority of the students also agree that they break their difficult tasks into smaller manageable tasks (M = 4.17, SD = 0.82). They also agree that they look for ways for increase the efficiency with which they perform their activities (M = 4.14, SD = 0.87), most of them also agree that they set deadlines for themselves when they set out to accomplish a task (M = 4.09, SD = 0.93), they also agree that they review their goals to determine if they need any revision (M = 4.01, SD = 0.99). Many of working students also agree that when they decide on what they want to accomplish in the short term they keep in mind their long-term objectives (M = 3.95, SD = 0.97), they also agree with the statement that they set short-term goals for what they want to accomplish in a few days or weeks (M = 3.92, SD = 0.99). To better manage time majority of the working student also agree that when they are frequently contacting someone, they record their name, address and phone number (M = 3.81, SD = 1.12), more than the average of the working students also agree that they set their priorities to determine the order in which they want to perform their task on each day (M = 3.80, SD = 1.02). Many also agree that they write notes to remind themselves of the tasks or activities that they need to do (M = 3.74, SD = 1.16).

Many of the working students are neutral but some still more agree that they carry a notebook to jot down their notes and ideas (M = 3.65, SD = 1.26), many also still agree that they review their daily log to see where they are wasting their time (M = 3.64, SD = 1.11). More than half of the working student also evaluate how well they are following the schedule that they have set down for themselves during the day (M = 3.63, SD = 1.13). However, most of the working students are neutral and showed that they do make a list of things to do on each day and check off each task as they are completed (M = 3.58, SD = 1.30), not many of the working students become overly involved in small details but some also do (M = 3.57, SD = 1.10). When asked from the working students to take on additional task some of them are unable to say no (M = 3.45, SD = 1.13), some of them also schedule their activities in advance (M = 3.40, SD = 1.20), sometimes some of them also tend to take on too many tasks at the same time (M = 3.35, SD = 1.04), some of the working students also feel that they can control their time (M = 3.31, SD = 1.04).

More than a few of the working students workdays are unpredictable for them to plan and manage their time to great extent (M = 3.24, SD = 1.14), a few of the working students also underestimated the time that will take them to accomplish tasks (M = 3.17, SD = 1.22), a few of the working students also keep a duly log of their activities (M = 3.15, SD = 1.19), a few of them also become overwhelmed by the task that are trivial (M = 3.05, SD = 1.06), some of them also find their things more easily when their workplace is less messy and when it is more organized and neat (M = 3.03, SD = 1.27), some of them also carry an appointment book along with them (M = 3.01, SD = 1.29).

However, many of the working students also disagree that when they are disorganized, they are better able to adjust to unexpected events (M = 2.96, SD = 1.20), most of them disagree that they have their most creative ideas when they are organized (M = 2.95, SD = 1.28), many of them also disagree and find it difficult to keep a schedule because other may take them away from their work (M = 2.90, SD = 1.18), many of working students also disagree to not spend a lot of time on unimportant tasks (M = 2.72, SD = 1.26).

4.3. Inferential Statistics

The t-test and ANOVA test of TMBS are as follows Table 8 :

Table 8

Table 8. T-test comparing mean score on time management behavior scales on the basis of gender.

Dependent Variable	Gender	N	M	SD	T	P
	Male	79	98.08	16.64
Time Management	Female	236	103.16	14.23	−2.22	0.27

There is no significant difference between the perceptions of male and female students about time management (t = −2.22, p = 0.27). Both are managing time in almost a similar manner. The gender imbalance among participants (79 males and 236 females) may introduce potential bias in the t-test analysis, as the larger female group could disproportionately influence the results. This imbalance could affect the generalizability of the findings, potentially skewing the outcomes in favor of trends within the larger group. Future studies may benefit from a more balanced sample to reduce this risk and improve the robustness of the analysis.

Table 9

Table 9. T-test comparing mean score on time management behavior scales on the basis of institute.

Dependent Variable	Institute	N	M	SD	T	Sig.
	Government	189	100.95	13.54
Time Management	Non-Government	126	102.10	15.69	−0.509	0.611

There is no significant difference between the perceptions of students enrolled in government and non-government higher educational institutes about time management (t = −0.509, p = 0.611). Both are managing time in almost similar manner ( Table 9 ).

Table 10

Table 10. T-test comparing mean score on time management behavior scales on the basis of type of job.

Dependent Variable	Type of Job	N	M	SD	T	Sig.
	Full time	110	102.50	15.79
Time Management	Part time	205	98.13	10.20	2.104	0.039

The above Table 10 identified a significant difference between perceptions of students who are working full time and those who are working part time about time management (t = 2.104, p = 0.039) Full time working students manage their time better (M = 102.50, SD = 15.79) as compared to students who work part time (M = 98.13, SD = 10.20).

Table 11

Table 11. ANOVA test comparing means between time management with job experience.

		Sum of Squares	Df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
Time management	Between Groups	2928.79	110	976.26	4.51	0.004
	Within Groups	45455.52	205	216.45
	Total	48384.31	315

There is a significant difference between time management by their experiences of job as p < 0.04 ( Table 11 ).

Table 12

Table 12. Correlation of time management and quality of learning of graduate students through CGPA.

		Time Management	CGPA
TM	Pearson Correlation	1	0.114
	Sig. (2-tailed)		0.098
	N	315	315
CGPA	Pearson Correlation	0.114	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.098
	N	315	315

There is a positive and insignificant relationship between time management and quality of learning (r = 0.114) (p ≤ 0.98) ( Table 12 ).

4.4. Findings

Following are the findings of the study:

The results did not show any difference between time management of students in private and public universities, however, students in private universities had slightly better time management. Compared to part-time employment, students with full-time jobs manage their time effectively and productively. Students with higher job experience managed their time well and probably had more flexible coping strategies with a good outcome.

Quality of learning has a positive and insignificant correlation between time management and quality of learning, confirming the first hypothesis and rejecting null hypothesis.

4.5. Discussion

Time Management Behavior scale showed that most students managed their time well and completed by addressing their most important tasks first. In addition, some students said that they manage their tasks into small jobs. They are also willing to improve their efficiency of work. Many students set deadlines to get the tasks done to accomplish their goals. This study showed that female students were more skillful than male with regard to time. However, female students manage time effectively compared to males. That shows females implement behaviors effectively like listing, planning, and programming. These are the part of long-established time management behavior. Moreover, the difference may be on part of cultural factors. In support to the current study, another research exposed a notable relation between good time management skills and females’ behavior. In means that females manage time, more successfully compared to male ( Adams & Blair, 2019 ).

There were many studies conducted to explore relationship among time management and improved quality of learning. Nevertheless, the results from the present study are helpful for teachers and professors to prepare appropriate intervention programs to teach students how they can manage time and minimize learn to cope up with factors to manage tasks effectively. This study can be helpful for students to learn time management skills and their importance to achieve higher level of academic performance. The same is suggested by Rashid et al. (2020) that time management skills can be enhanced by providing them seminars and workshops which will help them prioritize their goals.

Many students managed their tasks by setting short-term and long-term objectives depending on the time required to accomplish specific goals. At the same time, some students distributed their functions in a list to manage them by order from most important to less important. At the same time, many students write their objectives and to-do-tasks lists in their notes and get them completed with time, a study by Sevari and Kandy (2011) suggests same that time management skills can be improved by being prepared about behavior and forethought processes.

Conforming the results of current study, another research to determine time management skills also showed that students face difficulties to set their educational priorities. In addition, students find it hard to organize tasks, manage time effectively, and accomplish tasks timely ( Rashid et al., 2020 ).

In short, the results showed that mass students possess a high score of time management, and some students have a moderate level of time management. The results mean that students have a good amount of mastery to manage their time efficiently as stated by Alsalem et al. (2017) ; that can also be an essential part of our lives to add zeal and purpose to our lives which can make us determined enough to achieve our goals.

5. Conclusion, Implications, and Recommendations

This study has examined that time management has a positive but insignificant correlation with quality of learning, confirms first hypothesis and rejects null hypothesis. This has implied that a student, ranks high in time management, depicts improved quality of learning and vice versa. The Time Management Behavior Scale used in this study was a self-reported questionnaire to gather data, which can be subject to biases such as social desirability or recall bias, where participants may overestimate their time management abilities. Lastly, the study has provided implications for university employed students in managing time and achieving the highest quality learning.

5.1. Implications

The results present that it is possible to develop time management abilities among employed students, which in turn, could improve students’ quality of learning in academics. The findings can contribute to enhancing university students’ skill sets through effective time management techniques. Moreover, the results can help students understand the relationship between time management and improved quality of learning in academics. Being informed of this association, university students should manage their use and learn to improve academic performance, while getting insights into professional life as well.

5.2. Recommendations

Longitudinal studies can also be conducted to gauge on the relationship between time management and quality of learning. Studies can be conducted varying on the sample collection from different cities and even regions of Pakistan.

References

1. Adams, R. V.,&Blair, E. (2019). Impact of Time Management Behaviors on Undergraduate Engineering Students’ Performance. Sage Open, 9. >https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018824506

2. Aeon, B., Faber, A.,&Panaccio, A. (2021). Does Time Management Work? A Meta-Analysis. PLOS ONE, 16, e0245066. >https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066

3. Alay, S. (2000). Relationship between TIME Management and academic Achievement of Selected University Students. Master’s Thesis, Middle East Technical University.

4. Alsalem, W. S. Y., Alamodi, L. A.,&Hazazi, A. T. M. (2017). The Effect of Time Management on Academic Performance among Students of Jazan University. The Egyptian Journal of Hospital Medicine, 69, 3042-3049. >https://doi.org/10.12816/0042853

5. Aslan, A. E., Kalkan, N., Başman, M.,&Yaman, K. G. (2020). A Study for the Prediction of the Social Anxiety Level of University Students through Emotional Intelligence Features. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal, 10, 201-228.

6. Balduf, M. (2009). Underachievement among College Students. Journal of Advanced Academics, 20, 274-294. >https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202x0902000204

7. Broadbent, J.,&Poon, W. L. (2015). Self-Regulated Learning Strategies&Academic Achievement in Online Higher Education Learning Environments: A Systematic Review. The Internet and Higher Education, 27, 1-13. >https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2015.04.007

8. Brown, J. S., Collins, A.,&Duguid, P. (1989). Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning. Educational Researcher, 18, 32-42. >https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x018001032

9. Catsambis, S.,&Garland, J. E. (1997). Parental Involvement in Students’ Education during Middle School and High School. Report No. 18, Center for Social Organization of Schools (CSOS).

10. Charkhabi, M., Azizi Abarghuei, M.,&Hayati, D. (2013). The Association of Academic Burnout with Self-Efficacy and Quality of Learning Experience among Iranian Students. SpringerPlus, 2, Article No. 677. >https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-2-677

11. Eilam, B.,&Aharon, I. (2003). Students’ Planning in the Process of Self-Regulated Learning. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28, 304-334. >https://doi.org/10.1016/s0361-476x(02)00042-5

12. Etikan, I. (2016). Comparison of Convenience Sampling and Purposive Sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5, 1-4. >https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11

13. Klassen, R. M.,&Chiu, M. M. (2010). Effects on Teachers’ Self-Efficacy and Job Satisfaction: Teacher Gender, Years of Experience, and Job Stress. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 741-756. >https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019237

14. Lay, C. H.,&Schouwenburg, H. C. (1993). Trait Procrastination, Time Management. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 8, 647-662.

15. Ling, J., Heffernan, T. M.,&Muncer, S. J. (2003). Higher Education Students’ Beliefs about the Causes of Examination Failure: A Network Approach. Social Psychology of Education, 6, 159-170. >https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1023289908438

16. Macan, T. H., Shahani, C., Dipboye, R. L.,&Phillips, A. P. (1990). College Students’ Time Management: Correlations with Academic Performance and Stress. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 760-768. >https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.82.4.760

17. Meyers, N. M.,&Nulty, D. D. (2009). How to Use (five) Curriculum Design Principles to Align Authentic Learning Environments, Assessment, Students’ Approaches to Thinking and Learning Outcomes. Assessment&Evaluation in Higher Education, 34, 565-577. >https://doi.org/10.1080/02602930802226502

18. Misra, R.,&McKean, M. (2000). College Students’ Academic Stress and Its Relation to Their Anxiety, Time Management, and Leisure Satisfaction. American Journal of Health Studies, 16, 41-51.

19. Muijs, D. (2010). Doing Quantitative Research in Education with SPSS. SAGE Publications Ltd. >https://doi.org/10.4135/9781849203241

20. Rashid, A., Sharif, I., Khan, S.,&Malik, F. (2020). Relationship between Time Management Behavior and Academic Performance of University Students. Journal of Business and Social Review in Emerging Economies, 6, 1497-1504. >https://doi.org/10.26710/jbsee.v6i4.1481

21. Sevari, K.,&Kandy, M. (2011). Time Management Skills Impact on Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance. Journal of American Science, 7, 720-726.

22. Steinmayr, R., Weidinger, A. F., Schwinger, M.,&Spinath, B. (2019). The Importance of Students’ Motivation for Their Academic Achievement—Replicating and Extending Previous Findings. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 1730. >https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01730

23. Tanrıöğen, A.,&Iscan, S. (2009). Time Management Skills of Pamukkale University Students and Their Effects on Academic Achievement. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 9, 93-108.

24. Tektaş, N., Tektaş, M., Polat, Z.,&Topuz, A. S. (2010). Comparing the Expectations of Undergraduate and Graduate Degree Students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2, 1244-1248. >https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.181